Advances in Human Factors of Transportation

AHFE International

Accelerating Open Access Science in Human Factors Engineering and Human-Centered Computing

Advances in Human Factors of Transportation

book-cover

Editors: Gesa Praetorius, Charlott Sellberg, Riccardo Patriarca

Topics: Transportation Engineering

Publication Date: 2024

ISBN: 978-1-964867-24-3

DOI: 10.54941/ahfe1005188

Articles

Scientific Evaluation of the Impact of an Increase in the Retirement Age on the Cognitive Functions and Well-Being of Air Traffic Controllers (ATCOs)

In 2020, the Swiss Federal Council made it a strategic objective to encourage Skyguide (Switzerland’s private air navigation service provider) and social partners (HelvetiCA) to work together to raise the retirement age from the current 56/59 to at least 60. In this context, HelvetiCA and Skyguide agreed to carry out a scientific study (RAFA study) to assess the possible impact of this increase in age, in particular on the psychological well-being and cognitive performance of ATCOs. Two studies were carried out following a review of the literature. The first study aimed to identify the factors relating to working conditions, individual characteristics and coping strategies that may be affected by ageing and sought to assess whether these factors have an impact on the ability to perform operational tasks according to the demands and conditions of the job carried out by ATCOs. The second study aimed to assess the cognitive functions of ATCOs of different ages using a battery of neuropsychological tests to examine the impact of ageing on cognitive performance, a crucial aspect of air traffic control activity. After a 13-month study period, a final report containing 17 recommendations was submitted to HelvetiCA/Skyguide. Within the context of the Collective Labour Agreement agreed in January 2024, the social partners agreed to implement the recommendations to help HelvetiCA and Skyguide manage this change safely and efficiently, with a transparent programme.

Marc Baumgartner, Philippe Cabon, Fabrice Drogoul, Mickael CAUSSE, Jean-paul Imbert, Damien Mouratille

Conference Proceedings

Vigilant Air Traffic Control: Gaze-based Recognition of Detection Failures to Visual Warnings

Air traffic controllers sometimes fail to detect visual warnings due to limited attention resources. This challenge would even be exacerbated by the increasing complexity of visual data in future digital tower integrations. Detection failures (DF) manifest in three primary types: ordinary blindness (OB), look but fail to see (LBFTS) error, and misinterpretation (MI), each resulting from disruptions in the detection process stages and necessitating specific countermeasures. This study employs machine learning and eye-tracking in a simulated air traffic control (ATC) environment to identify and differentiate types of DF. Eye movements of 26 participants were tracked across 108 OB, 109 LBFTS, and 95 MI instances to ATC warnings. Seven machine learning models, including three basic and four advanced tree-based models, were assessed for DF recognition. Results found that the gradient boosting decision tree exhibited superior performance with 74% accuracy in four-detection-type recognition, particularly in recognizing OB and LBFTS. Additionally, correct detection and MI are more challenging but still effectively recognized, with correct detection better identified by k-Nearest Neighbour, and MI by light gradient boosting machine. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of real-time gaze-based DF recognition in ATC and offer valuable insights for ATC management in enhancing visual warning detection and aviation safety.

Zhimin Li, Fan Li

Conference Proceedings

Hidden Dangers on the Flight Deck: A Stakeholder Analysis of the Issues Surrounding Commercial Pilot Mental Health

On October 22, 2023, an off-duty Alaska Airlines pilot who was traveling as a guest in a flight deck jump seat of Alaska Airlines Flight AS2059 from Seattle Paine Field Airport to San Francisco International Airport grabbed the engine shutoff handles mid-flight. The guest pilot was wrestled away by the pilots in command of the aircraft and the aircraft diverted to Portland International Airport. The recent incident relating to airline pilot mental health highlighted the US airline industry’s reluctance to address a serious potential aviation safety problem of pilot mental health. During the COVID-19 pandemic mental health issues throughout society were brought into the public spotlight. Olympic athletes made their point in the 2020 Olympics of being vulnerable to mental health issues, meanwhile little was mentioned about the stressful environment of airline pilots’ susceptibility to mental health issues. This research was aimed at US commercial pilot mental health from the perspectives of air safety concerns, the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) policy and process, the potential failure of pilots voluntarily reporting, the inadequate support for pilots and pilot job security. The research utilized other research related to pilot mental health, aviation accident and incident reports related to pilot mental health and lastly a stakeholder analysis of the primary stakeholder (pilots) in relation to mental health and the role of other major stakeholders. A complex problem emerged on pilot mental health. The stakeholder analysis showed that a solution to the commercial pilot mental health problem would require strong collaboration of the major stakeholders in an environment of transparency and willingness to sincerely address the issues to resolve the problem.

Mark Miller, Katie Coleman-assad

Conference Proceedings

Making Sense of Culture in the Cockpit: The Crash of Japan Airlines Flight 1045

A novel methodology is used to analyze flight crew communication during the crash of Japan Airlines Flight 1045 in Anchorage, Alaska. Conversation analysis (CA) techniques are used to identify significant recurring phenomena and critical interactions that provide insight into the process of communication breakdown in the cockpit. Several communication barriers between the American captain and Japanese first officer (FO) and flight engineer (FE) contributed to the accident. One factor was the Japanese FO talking around flight safety concerns without stating them directly, which is explained in terms of high- and low-context interactions. Intra-cockpit communication may also have been influenced by topic avoidance and a desire to minimize face loss. The lessons from this accident are relevant to current airline operations as “culture accidents” still periodically occur.

Simon Cookson

Conference Proceedings

Remote Digital Tower to support Air Traffic Control Systems

Traditionally, air traffic control towers have relied on controllers and flight information officers to visually monitor the airspace through tower windows to ensure safe air traffic management. However, issues pertaining to tower maintenance and staffing have emerged. These challenges have prompted the exploration of a new air traffic control paradigm, the Remote Digital Tower (RDT). The RDT system facilitates air traffic management operations remotely using technological advancements such as cameras, sensors, information devices, and networks, thereby obviating the need for on-site control towers.This project aims to facilitate the safe and efficient operation of the RDT system. It focuses on proposing designs for both software and hardware that are secure, intuitive, and effective for the system's use.The design emphasis is on creating user interface software that allows controllers to conduct air traffic control operations remotely and on developing the hardware of the control console for these operations. A design team, including former air traffic controllers, has been assembled to incorporate user perspectives and expert insights into the design process.The initial phase of the design process involved analyzing the operational tasks of traditional control towers, system functionalities, and user interactions. Subsequently, a prototype system was developed, featuring a 360° panoramic display and a control console. The control console's interface was simplified by consolidating various displays and keyboards into a single touch-panel display. Interviews with former controllers informed task analysis, which guided the design of the prototype system.The software's operational panel was designed based on the task analysis. The user interface design was conceptualized from the task design, considering the basic layout and methods of operation, resulting in the creation of wireframe prototypes. These prototypes underwent multiple user evaluations, which informed the iterative design process to refine the interface based on continuous feedback.For the hardware design of the control console, the task design was fundamental. The prototype included considerations such as installing a large touch display and was developed with the average physique of Japanese operators in mind, optimizing the placement and angles of the panoramic and operational screens. The prototype's shape was repeatedly refined to ensure optimal form while accommodating the operational needs.The final software prototype proposed a cockpit-type interface, consolidating the operational interface into a single touch-panel display. This display integrated functions such as radar, scheduling, camera feeds, and system controls, which were hierarchically organized to simplify operations. In particular, the scheduling display was designed to be compact, incorporating existing scheduling elements and spatially categorizing aircraft movements without overwhelming other displays. Design considerations also extended to readability, with user-friendly choices for font sizes and color schemes.The final hardware design prototype for the control console aimed for a form factor that ensured visibility and ease of operation for both the touch panel and panoramic screens. The design took into account operator comfort and included necessary features such as telephones and note spaces. The shape was organically designed to be familiar and comfortable for operators.In summary, this project successfully proposed designs for both software and hardware to enable the safe and efficient operation of the RDT system. While the designs prioritize safety, usability, and efficacy, it is acknowledged that the user evaluations conducted were limited. Future work will involve continuing to refine the designs based on broader user evaluations to achieve a higher level of design maturity.

Kazuhiko Yamazaki, Satoru Inoue, Hisae Aoyama, Takeuhi Kimiaki

Conference Proceedings

The Impact of Delayed Communication on NASA’s Human-Systems Operations: Preliminary Results of a Systematic Review

Throughout the history of human spaceflight, NASA has relied on a team of ground-based experts on Earth to manage its missions, vehicles, and crews to ensure crew safety and mission success. However, as missions progress beyond low-Earth orbit (LEO), this paradigm of dependence on ground must evolve. Beyond LEO, in missions to the moon and Mars, crews will confront new challenges: limited evacuation options, reduced resupply capabilities, and significant communication delays that impede real-time support from experts on the ground. This reduction in ground support amplifies the likelihood that crews will be unable to adequately respond to unanticipated, safety-critical events. Understanding the scope of these risks and identifying effective countermeasures hinges on understanding the impact of communication delays on complex operations, especially in urgent, unforeseen events. Real-time communication currently provides the crew with continuous access to a large, extensively resourced ground team skilled in anomaly resolution. However, as communication delays grow, the need to transfer some responsibilities from ground experts to onboard crew becomes evident. NASA has been exploring this shift in operational responsibilities and its effectiveness in managing complex operations for decades. Nevertheless, a comprehensive understanding of the specific challenges posed by communication delays and the necessary countermeasures to mitigate them remains a gap. In this paper, we present an update on our systematic review of the literature on communication delays, the first in-depth review since 2013 (Rader et al.). We introduce a coding taxonomy to capture key constructs from papers of interest and discuss preliminary findings. These preliminary results suggest two significant research gaps: limited studies have been conducted 1) with lunar-like latencies and 2) on problem-solving strategies for the maximum latencies expected in Mars missions. We outline plans and propose recommendations to address these gaps through ongoing and future research.

Megan Parisi, Kaitlin Mctigue, Shu-Chieh Wu, John Karasinski, Tina Panontin, Lauren Landon, Alonso Vera

Conference Proceedings

The Challenges of the Implementation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Transportation.

The implementation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into transportation systems signifies a fundamental change that holds the potential to improve overall sustainability, safety, and efficiency. However, this transformation is not without its challenges, particularly concerning human factors and ergonomics. Firstly, the ergonomic integration of AI systems in transportation requires careful consideration of human-AI interaction. Unlike traditional systems, AI-driven technologies often involve complex algorithms that are not inherently intuitive to human operators. This complexity can lead to a disconnect between how the system operates and how users understand it. For instance, in autonomous vehicles, drivers may be required to take control in certain scenarios. The ergonomic challenge here lies in ensuring that the transition between AI and human control is seamless and that the user is adequately informed and prepared to take over. Another significant challenge is addressing the variability in human behavior and expectations. AI systems, designed based on standard models of behavior, may not adequately account for the wide range of human responses and interactions. This gap can lead to scenarios where AI systems behave in unexpected or counterintuitive ways to human users, potentially causing confusion and reducing the overall efficiency and safety of the transportation system. CAE Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) research case study focuses on the implementation and certification of AAM in the FAA/EASA environment.The reliability and trustworthiness of AI systems also pose a major ergonomic challenge. To fully integrate AI into transportation, users must trust these systems. This trust depends on the transparency and explainability of AI decision-making processes. Nevertheless, numerous AI algorithms, especially those rooted in deep learning, are frequently regarded as 'black boxes' owing to their intricacy and absence of interpretability. Developing AI systems that are both advanced and transparent is a significant hurdle that needs to be addressed.Data privacy and security are also paramount concerns. AI systems in transportation rely heavily on data, including personal and sensitive information. Ensuring the privacy and security of this data while utilizing it for AI processes is a complex challenge, requiring robust encryption methods and strict data handling policies. Moreover, the ergonomic aspect involves designing systems that not only protect data but also respect user privacy preferences and norms.The implementation of AI in transportation is a multifaceted challenge, requiring a holistic approach that considers human factors and ergonomics. As we move towards more AI-integrated transportation systems, it is essential to address these challenges through interdisciplinary research, collaboration, and a user-centered design approach.

Dimitrios Ziakkas, Debra Henneberry

Conference Proceedings

Should I board this Advanced Air Mobility vehicle? A systemic risk assessment of eVTOL in a vertiport

Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) vehicles can serve a wide range of operations, supporting passenger and cargo movements within and between urban and rural environments. Novel risks emerge from AAM systems with respect to both airborne and ground segments, calling for the adoption of systems theory and a systemic perspective for safety risk management. In this domain, Systems Theoretic Accident Modelling and Processes (STAMP) is an accident causality model that considers safety as a continuous control task. The scientific literature already offers some applications of STAMP and its nested techniques, i.e., System-Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) and Causal Analysis based on System Theory (CAST), for investigating the safety management in the AAM domain. However, to the best of our knowledge, no contributions use as a unit of analysis the management of safe operations for an AAM system by adopting an integrated perspective to account for the interactions among different kinds of vehicles within vertiports and airports. For this reason, the manuscript proposes a systemic analysis for the safety management of electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing (eVTOL) vehicles operating at a vertiport located inside an airport. We employed the STPA technique, whose usage has been enhanced thanks to a standardized and neutralized taxonomy describing human factors involved in the operations. This allowed for embracing a no-blame and non-judgemental human perspective, which benefits from the systemic view offered by STPA.

Elena Stefana, Natalia Guskova, Giulio Di Gravio, Riccardo Patriarca

Conference Proceedings

Show the Way: Accelerating General Aviation Accident Investigations through LLMs and HFACS

General Aviation (GA), with the highest accident and fatality rates in civil aviation, undergoes lengthy accident investigations that include site analysis, witness interviews, cause identification, and detailed reporting. These expert-driven processes, often extending for months or years, not only require extensive manpower but also delay vital accident prevention initiatives in GA. The advent of large language models (LLMs), with groundbreaking capabilities in understanding and generating complex text, offers a potential solution to these challenges. This study aims to conduct a General Aviation Accident Cause Automatic Prediction System (GA-ACAPS), which leverages witness narratives (established early in the investigation) through LLMs. The research utilizes 2250 GA accident reports from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), employing the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) for structured accident causation predictions. Three preliminary experiments were conducted to compare the prediction performance of three different prompting methods before the formal experiment. The results from the preliminary experiments underscore that integrating witness narratives with basic accident information significantly boosts the performance of GA-ACAPS. This optimized prompt was thus implemented in the formal study. The formal experiment's findings demonstrate that GA-ACAPS is proficient in predicting unsafe acts and specific preconditions of unsafe acts like the physical environment and personal readiness. This study endorses the potential of GA-ACAPS to serve as a dependable tool for investigators, aiming to narrow down probable causes of accidents and thereby increase the efficiency of investigations. Moreover, the application of LLMs in GA accident analysis heralds a new era of innovative approaches and essential insights, contributing to the advancement of aviation safety.

Qingli Liu, Yuqi Yan, Fan Li, Shanshan Feng

Conference Proceedings

Patterning Risk: An Innovative Task Design Method for Simulating Incidents in Transportation Studies

The development of alternative tasks is pivotal in transportation safety research, particularly when resource constraints hinder the execution of incident simulations. Traditionally, many studies have relied on expert knowledge and subjective judgments to design such alternative tasks. However, a systematic methodology is lacking. This work proposes a novel task design approach by constructing a Task Knowledge Graph (TKG). The proposed approach leverages the Knowledge Graph to delineate the hierarchical and logical relationships of necessary operations of human operators in the incident scenarios. Such TKG patterns the risks to provide a theoretical foundation for designing alternative tasks. A case study is provided in this work to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. In the case study, a modified Stroop game was designed to pattern the task demand of pilots during engine shutdown incidents. The results showed that the Stroop game could evoke similar eye movements in the participants as the engine shutdown scenario replicated on a simulator. Overall, the proposed approach offers a feasible tool for designing alternative tasks to obtain human behaviour data when direct replication of research scenarios is impractical.

Mengtao Lyu, Fan Li

Conference Proceedings

Reduction and Modification for Aero Engine Rotor Model Considering Contact Stiffness

Aiming at the difficulty of both accuracy and computational efficiency in aero engine rotor model, a method of dimensionality reduction and modification of aero engine rotor model considering contact stiffness is proposed. First, a three-dimensional finite element model of the aero-engine rotor is established, using thin-layer elements to represent the end-tooth contact interface between rotor discs. Second, based on the Craig-Bampton fixed-interface modal synthesis method, a reduced model of the rotor is obtained, retaining the main nodes at the bearing and the end-tooth contact interface positions. Finally, the contact stiffness in the reduced rotor model is modified based on the sensitivity method and rotor modal testing. The maximum frequency error of the first three orders of bending mode frequencies calculated by the modified model is reduced from 12.84% to 0.11%, and the calculated modal shapes are consistent with the experimental results. Moreover, the average time of five iterations of correction calculation is 0.8 seconds on the platform of Matlab software, which verifies the accuracy and efficiency of the method. The calculation results show that the dimensionality reduction and modification method considering contact stiffness can not only satisfy the correction accuracy, but also significantly improve the model correction efficiency of aero engine rotor.

Chengming Gao, Dahai Zhang

Conference Proceedings

Improved One-Step Block Precise Integration Method For Rotor Nonlinear Response Calculation

To improve the issue of excessive computational complexity in the single-step block precise integration method for nonlinear rotor dynamics calculations, a novel sub-block subdivision approach was introduced to refine Duhamel integration and internal point load estimation through fine-tuned matrix-vector operations. This method effectively sidesteps redundant calculations involving zero and identity matrices by precomputing and storing results corresponding to constant matrices. In preserving the accuracy levels of the conventional algorithm, the refined approach has successfully curtailed the computational workload by approximately 20%. The advanced computational strategy was tested on a dual-disc rotor model to conduct a nonlinear response calculation. The outcomes were benchmarked against results from the established Newmark method, demonstrating efficacy and efficiency of the implemented improvements. Additionally, distinct applicability scenarios of the two algorithms were substantiated.

Jiaxuan Liu, Dahai Zhang

Conference Proceedings

Non-right-handedness as a contributor to incidents/accidents reported within the Aviation Safety Reporting System

Individual differences in hand use preference are associated with individual differences in cognition, emotion, and behavior. Additional work suggests that non-right-handers (NRH) are more accident prone generally, more likely to suffer from a physical accident resulting in head or severe injury, are involved in more car accidents, and die earlier than righthanders (RH). It is unclear what causal factors result in these accident-related differences between handedness groups, but likely there is an interplay between both cognition and environment. Additionally, the ‘right-hand world hypothesis’ suggests that the environment is constructed in a manner that is implicitly biased toward right-handers, resulting in physical constraints on NRH performance. Given these differences between RH and NRH, the current work sought to determine if NRH was associated with incidents in air transportation as reported via the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS), a public database consisting of voluntary safety reports about aviation safety events. Out of 225,897 reports from January 1988 to September 2023, two reports referred to left-handedness as being detrimental to performance as a result of the configuration of the environment. Broadly, results suggest limited impacts of NRH on ASRS reported incidents, though study limitations may result in underestimation of NRH-incident relationships.

Ruth Propper, R Jordan Hinson, Amelia Kinsella

Conference Proceedings

Crew Resource Management Evaluation for Pilots: A Modern Perspective

Crew Resource Management (CRM) has been an integral part of aviation for decades. However, evaluation of CRM for pilots has always been a challenge. As such, an exploration of the literature was commenced to approach CRM evaluation from a modern perspective. Some teams promoted the integration of technology into the assessment process to better understand the behavioral markers currently being utilized. Others encouraged a larger revamp, by shifting towards a more holistic assessment based on advances in cognitive science. Both these approaches were discussed, and it is likely that a blend of both will be required to address this research problem. However, to ensure robustness and long-term sustainability of CRM evaluation, more research must be conducted from a cognitive science perspective, to inform which assessment frameworks are more effective and reliable.

Kiranraj Pushparaj, Hui Wang, David Esser, Barbara Holder

Conference Proceedings

Analysis of the influence of HUD brightness adjustment on pilots' information perception

In order to study the visual effects of the external visual environment and HUD character brightness design on HUD information recognition, a 2×2 within-subject experimental design with two factors of character display brightness and environmental illumination was used, and the subjects were required to operate under experimental conditions. Complete the complete flight simulation process. The experiment collected subjects' performance data, SART scale data and physiological data. The experimental results show that the brightness factor is significant for the accuracy rate, and the environmental illumination factor is significant for the reaction time; among them, the environmental illumination factor is significant for the heart rate variability index SDNN, CV, and is borderline significant for the breathing index.

Guoqiang sun

Conference Proceedings

Typology of Behavioral and Emotional Reactions to Uncomfortable Automated Driving Operations

Driving comfort is considered one of the core factors for broad public acceptance of automated driving. Monitoring emotional and behavioral reactions to potentially uncomfortable automated driving maneuvers could allow for early interventions to avoid discomfort, e.g. by adapting the automated driving style or information presentation. In a driving simulator study, 74 participants balanced in gender and age (51% male, 19 to 75 years) were instructed to answer emails on a laptop placed at the center console during a highly automated drive. After several kilometers, they experienced a rather fast and uncomfortable approach to a stationary truck at the rear end of a traffic jam. Behavioral (take-over, glances, interruption of laptop work) as well as emotional reactions (facial expression analysis using Visage FaceTrack and FaceAnalysis v9.0) were assessed 200m before reaching the end of the traffic jam and compared to a 200m baseline. To consider individual differences, a clustering approach was applied, resulting in a typology of five reaction patterns. Cluster 1 (“not noticed”, 9%) did not interrupt the laptop work and showed no glances ahead to the approach situation. Cluster 2 (“quick check”, 15%) interrupted the laptop work only briefly but did not take the hands off the keyboard, quickly checked the situation (9.5% glance time ahead) and showed a small average peak increase in the emotion “surprise” of 4.8% compared to the baseline. Cluster 3 (“observation”, 30%) interrupted the laptop work by removing the hands from the keyboard, observed the situation (20.6% glance time ahead) and showed an increase in average peak surprise by 9.7%. Cluster 4 (“quick take-over”, 31%) observed the situation (45.1% glance time ahead), interrupted the laptop work by grasping the steering wheel, started braking rather quickly at the last moments of the approach and showed an increase in average peak surprise by 9.2%. Cluster 5 (“planned take-over”, 15%) observed the situation intensively already at a very early stage (64.3% glance time ahead), resumed manual control in a planned manner and showed little increase in average peak surprise by 3.8%. To conclude, behavioral and emotional reactions to an identical uncomfortable automated approach maneuver differ considerably between participants. Thus, information and prevention strategies to avoid discomfort cannot be designed as a one-fits-all solution, but need to be tailored to the actual state and behavior of each driver.

Matthias Beggiato, Cornelia Hollander, Stephan Enhuber, Klaus Moessner, Georg Jahn

Conference Proceedings

Combining Internal and External Communication: The Design of a Holistic Human-Machine Interface for Automated Vehicles

In this paper, we explore the field of holistic Human-Machine Interfaces (hHMIs). Currently, internal and external Human-Machine Interfaces are being researched as separate fields. This separation can lead to non-systemic designs that operate in different fashions, make the switch between traffic roles less seamless, and create differences in understanding of a traffic situation, potentially increasing confusion. These factors can limit the adoption of automated vehicles and lead to less seamless interactions in traffic. For this reason, we explore the concept of hHMIs, combining internal and external communication. This paper introduces a working definition for this new type of interface. Then, it explores considerations for the design of such an interface, which are the provision of anticipatory cues, interaction modalities and perceptibility, colour usage, building upon standardisation, and the usage of a singular versus a coupled interface. Then, we apply these considerations with an artefact contribution in the form of an hHMI concept. This interface communicates anticipatory cues in a unified manner to internal and external users of the automated vehicle and demonstrates how these proposed considerations can be applied. By sharing design considerations and a design concept, this paper aims to stimulate the field of holistic Human-Machine Interfaces for automated vehicles.

Rutger Verstegen, Ruolin Gao, Regina Bernhaupt, Pavlo Bazilinskyy, Marieke Martens

Conference Proceedings

Evaluation of different HMIs to improve operator hazard perception and user experience in teleoperation of automated shuttles

Autonomous vehicle technologies are rapidly evolving. In challenging situations that exceed the vehicle's autonomous capabilities, the teleoperation of vehicles enables human operators to remotely control and maneuver a vehicle. Operating remotely is not a trivial task, especially due to the lack of feedback caused by physical decoupling from the vehicle, the reduced quality of information of the vehicle environment, and the latency caused by the data transfer. We aim to explore if a human operator can be supported in performing the task by enhancing visual cues, acting as a proactive alert system using Augmented Reality (AR) overlays. We studied three types of hazards (behavioural precursor, environmental precursor, and sudden hazard appearance) and three Human-Machine-Interfaces (no support, bounding boxes, and bounding boxes with warning sign) in 3x3 within-subjects design. We analysed the perceived criticality of the hazard, and perceived difficulty when performing the task. The study was conducted with N = 37 participants using 15 short, real-world videos. Perceived criticality ratings did not significantly differ between various HMI concepts (p = .610). However, there was a significant difference in the evaluation of perceived difficulty between no support and bounding box (p = .001) and no support and bounding box with warning (p = .001). Participants perceived the scenario as easier when displaying bounding boxes for hazards with sudden appearances (p = .004) and behavioural predictions (p = .021), and the inclusion of warning signs for sudden hazards (p = .002) further decreased the difficulty. These results can be incorporated to refine the HMI design of teleoperation cockpits and to facilitate safety and operator experience in teleoperation. Future research should investigate if the timing or data representation has effect on the operator experience and performance.

Shanmuga Priya Srinivasan, Paul Tribulowski, Alisa Lindner

Conference Proceedings

How to support level-compliant driver behavior in automated driving with optimized User Experience?

The research project KARLI is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action. Ensuring level-compliant driver behaviour in different SAE levels of automation is necessary for safe driving in automated vehicles. User Experience is considered relevant for user acceptance of those automated systems. In a qualitative study, 40 innovative ideas for interaction in automated driving were reflected in terms of User Experience. This was done by twelve individuals out of four different user groups – young people, frequent drivers with automation experience, people with children and people aged 65 and older. They evaluated the 40 ideas integrated in different concepts of automated driving, which were presented in user narratives. The evaluation was conducted across six UX facets (according to Engeln & Engeln, 2015): task (incl. interaction), self-expression, learnability, convenience of use, joy of use and aesthetics. The results provide important design insights for the development of interaction concepts for automated vehicles. Based on these findings, the interaction concepts to support level compliant driver behaviour were further elaborated and will be re-evaluated in an upcoming virtual reality experiment.

Nuria Brüggemann, Preis Sebastian, Arnd Engeln, Anne Pagenkopf

Conference Proceedings

Unveiling Trust: A Model-Based Approach to Understanding and Enhancing Perceived Safety in Autonomous Vehicles

Rapid technological development and shorter innovation cycles are driving significant changes in the field of autonomous vehicle systems. The trend towards autonomous driving has increased the importance of existing and new assistance systems in vehicles. The aim of developing such systems is to reduce the frequency and severity of accidents as traffic density increases. In addition, the presence of driver assistance systems should have a positive impact on the safety perception of vehicle occupants. At the same time, understanding human perception is becoming increasingly important as technology advances. For vehicle manufacturers, occupant safety perception is critical to improving their market position, as safety is an important decision criterion for users.The objective of this paper is to identify the factors that influence occupant and driver safety perception in Level 3 autonomous vehicles and to embed them in a comprehensive model. For this purpose, the current state of the art was reviewed and analyzed. The results were then used to identify a total of 17 factors in five categories of influence. The model shows the interrelations and dependencies between these factors. With the help of the developed model, it should be possible in the future to systematically evaluate vehicle interiors with regard to perceived safety.The developed model integrates objective factors that influence perceived safety and aims to be applicable across manufacturers and vehicle models. The model considers objective factors with measurable influences and defined optimal ranges, such as interior temperature. It is intended to serve as a basis for understanding the complex interactions that influence human perception of safety in autonomous driving scenarios.The development of a model that can be used as a basis for assessing perceived safety in autonomous vehicles proved to be complex, especially given the ongoing research in this area and the lack of fully autonomous vehicles on the market. Therefore, the model is designed to be extended in the future. Further studies are needed to improve the model, including experiments in real vehicles with different levels of autonomy and the development of appropriate measurement tools. In addition, it is important to investigate the composition of an ideal survey group, taking into account factors such as geographical origin and socio-economic background. The results of the experiments and surveys must be statistically analyzed in order to continuously improve the model. External influences, such as market trends, should be taken into account in the ongoing monitoring and improvement process.In conclusion, the developed model captures the influences on drivers and occupants of Level 3 autonomous vehicles and forms the basis for further research. Future research should focus on objective assessments using a catalog based on the model. In addition, ongoing research is essential to keep the model relevant in the face of technological advances and market dynamics.

Ninja Vom Stein, Manuel Löwer

Conference Proceedings

Age limit for “driving” an autonomous vehicle: an open issue for future road transport system

Vehicles are an indisputable necessity for humans’ lives. Every day, people utilize both private and public transportation to fulfil their diverse demands. The advent of autonomous vehicles has presented novel opportunities as well as challenges for humanity, however when these cars become more commonplace, people will encounter a variety of new evolutions to manage. With a few exceptions represented by the cases in which their intervention is required, people will be free to manage their personal affairs and perform different activities during the trip with a self-driving car. Regarding this matter, it can be assumed that people will be able to utilize an autonomous vehicle even they are less than 18 years old (the minimum age for having a driving licence in most of the countries), although several questions will arise. A group of University students (whose have enough information about AVs) participated in a discussion panel and evaluated the arguments made for and against the topic to arrive at a logical conclusion. This work looks at and evaluates the panel's opinions, contrasting them with already published manuscripts and comparing the results with a wide surveys’ ones.

Saeedeh Mosaferchi, Alireza Mortezapour, Luca Orlando, Alessandro Naddeo

Conference Proceedings

Slideo: Bicycle-to-Vehicle Communication to Intuitively Share Intention to Turn with Automated Vehicles

In urban environments, cycling is an important method of transportation due to being sustainable, healthy and less space-intensive than motorised traffic. Most literature on interactions between automated vehicles (AVs) and vulnerable road users (VRUs) focuses on external Human-Machine Interfaces positioned on AVs and telling VRUs what to do. Such an interface requires cyclists to actively look for and interpret the information and can reduce their ability to make their own decisions. We designed a physical bicycle-to-vehicle (B2V) interaction that allows cyclists to share the intention to turn with AVs through vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication. We explored four concepts of interaction with hands, feet, hips, and knees. The final concept uses haptic feedback in each handle. The test with nine participants explored the clarity of the feedback and compared two variations: (1) providing feedback in the beginning, during and at the end and (2) giving feedback only at the beginning and end. Results indicate that the general meaning of both variants is clear and that the preferred variation of feedback is up to personal preference. We suggest that B2V interactions should be possible to personalise.

Jochem Verstegen, Pavlo Bazilinskyy

Conference Proceedings

Exploring the Effects of Interior Design Elements on the Uncertainty of Passengers of Fully Automated Cars

Humans are masters in predicting each other’s behaviour and acting relatively appropriately in ambiguous and uncertain situations. Although road accident statistics show a slight decrease in the number of road traffic deaths, these numbers are still very high. Fully automated cars are said to offer the potential to bring everyone everywhere, avoid accidents, and save parking spaces. This does not mean that the objective benefits of fully automated cars are also perceived this way by society. We may feel uncertain about the intentions, behaviour, and reliability of these fully automated cars. Our uncertainty influences our behaviour and interaction. Uncertainty can alter our mental state and, thus, our behaviour. Uncertainty further shapes perceptions of and interactions with fully automated cars. People mustn't feel uncertain about the capability of the fully automated car to prevent misuse. Interior design could play a role in mediating the uncertainty that passengers of fully automated cars perceive. A study was conducted to explore the effects of interior design elements on the uncertainty of passengers of fully automated vehicles. Results of the conducted study, with 113 participants, indicate that factors such as familiarity, trust, and perceived control are significant considerations when addressing perceived uncertainty through interior design. Furthermore, the introduction of unfamiliar design elements and perceived loss of control may lead to an increase in feelings of psychological uncertainty.

Mervyn Franssen, Haoyu Dong, Rutger Verstegen, Marieke Martens

Conference Proceedings

Phantom braking in automated vehicles: A theoretical outline and cycling simulator demonstration

The emerging use of automated driving systems introduces novel situations that may affect the safety of vulnerable road users such as cyclists. In this paper, we explain and conceptualise the phenomenon of phantom braking – sudden and unexpected deceleration – in automated vehicles. We apply signal detection theory to interpret phantom braking as a by-product of automated decision-making, with the vehicle favouring the avoidance of accidents at the cost of potentially causing rear-end accidents. To illustrate phantom braking and its effects on cyclists, we used a newly developed cycling simulator. An exploratory measurement conducted with a single cyclist participant revealed a possible complacency effect of the cyclist, with the cyclist’s decision-making mirroring the automated vehicle’s decision-making. The findings provide a testament to using cycling simulators for further exploration of the effects of phantom braking on cyclists.

Siri Hegna Berge, Joost de Winter, Yan Feng, Marjan Hagenzieker

Conference Proceedings

Considerations of Interior Design in Fully Automated Vehicles: Influence of Front Window Scenery on Ride Comfort and Motion Sickness

This study aims to derive findings applicable to the interior design of fully automated vehicles, focusing on the impact of external scenery information on ride comfort and motion sickness. Experiments were conducted using a driving simulator with three monitors, simulating automatic driving scenarios in two different environments: a suburban road with no buildings (Experiment 1) and an urban setting with buildings along the road (Experiment 2). Participants experienced 60 minutes of travel with moderate whole-body vibration exposure, and reported their perceived discomfort and motion sickness. Two foreground scenery conditions were tested: a three-display condition with all displays turned on, and a two-display condition where participants could not receive visual front window scenery from the center display, which was turned off. The results showed that motion sickness was more induced in the two-display condition in an urban environment. Discomfort results between both conditions were contradictory. Blocking visual scenery from front window during traveling in suburban areas may enhance ride comfort. Meanwhile, in an urban environment surrounded by structures, blocking the visual front window scenery may not only induce motion sickness but also decrease ride comfort.

Junya Tatsuno, Iori Hisada, Kazuma Ishimatsu, Hitomi Nakamura, Setsuo Maeda

Conference Proceedings

An online-survey on user expectations and mental model of automated driving: The effects of automation description and technology readiness

The European Hi-Drive project (https://www.hi-drive.eu/) is dedicated to overcoming the technological and societal challenges associated with the successful deployment of Automated Driving (AD). Hereby, a key focus is on creating user-friendly AD systems that prioritize driver safety. To better understand user’s mental models of AD as well as their expectations regarding system features, a questionnaire was developed within the project. In this questionnaire, respondents are presented with statements about AD and tasked with determining the accuracy of each statement. Additionally, participants are asked to indicate their confidence level in their judgment. The questionnaire was applied in an online survey including 211 participants. The survey compared two widely used taxonomies of Driving Automation (i.e., by SAE and BASt) as the basic description of AD. Participants were categorized into three groups based on their responses to a technology readiness questionnaire. Participants showing a high level of technology readiness were younger and indicated a higher level of experience with on-market ADAS. Furthermore, they showed a better understanding of AD and an overall more favorable evaluation of AD. There was not difference in the understanding of AD between the group who was instructed with the SAE taxonomy and the BASt taxonomy. While both descriptions effectively conveyed a foundational understanding of automated driving, they fell short in adequately communicating AD handling. Especially, items dealing with activation / deactivation and availability of AD and split of responsibility between AD and driver showed a low proportion of correct answers. If it comes to the expectation towards AD as well as its potentials, the majority of user expected AD to include features like stop and go traffic or automated lane changes. The expectations of participants were ambiguous about the AD being able to handle complex road infrastructure and they did not expect AD to operate in high speeds or adverse weather. The implications of the results are discussed for AD development and especially user training of AD. User expectations and their mental model of AD should be the basis for the development of scientifically sound user education of AD. The results of the present survey can help developers of AD to prioritize the most relevant system features based on actual user expectations.

Barbara Metz, Johanna Wörle, Alexandra Neukum

Conference Proceedings

How the Interface of Self-driving Cars Influences the Road-crossing Behavior and Subjective Evaluation of Pedestrians of Different Ages

As self-driving technology progresses, there's a crucial need to ensure safe interactions between pedestrians and vehicles. This study delves into how pedestrians of varying ages respond to different vehicle speeds and communication interfaces. The experiment encompasses three age groups (older adults, young adults, children), two vehicle speeds (40 km/hr, 60 km/hr), and six interface variations. Findings highlight those older adults exhibit poorer crossing behaviors, while children's decision times mirror those of young adults, albeit with slower walking speeds impacting safety. Notably, all age groups favor interfaces over no interface, with text-based or text combined with symbols interfaces emerging as the most effective in subjective evaluations and crossing behaviors. These insights offer invaluable guidance for optimizing pedestrian safety in the realm of autonomous vehicles.

Yung-ching Liu, Yu-jie Chen

Conference Proceedings

Sense of safety for pedestrians and autonomous vehicles

As the electric vehicle industry continues to progress, vehicles equipped with active driving capabilities are becoming increasingly prevalent on the road. The widespread commercialization of advanced autonomous vehicles necessitates the resolution of their capacity to interact with other road users in a safe, precise, and efficient manner. In the daily accident the mortality rate among pedestrians and cyclists constitutes 26% of all accidents, which is a significant statistic that most previous studies have focused on, particularly on the interaction between autonomous vehicles and vehicle occupants. However, research into how autonomous vehicles interact with pedestrians outside the vehicle is comparatively scarce. The academic community, primarily focused on the vehicle kinematics of eHMI and the characteristics of unmanned automobile traffic environments, has conducted extensive research and analysis. This article aims to utilize the richness of survey data to provide insight into the intuitive feelings of pedestrians when interacting with unmanned vehicles in the absence of traffic infrastructure. This article aims to provide insight into pedestrian feelings when interacting with unmanned vehicles and proposes a model for safe interactions in the absence of traffic infrastructure.

Yijun Lou, Yan Luo

Conference Proceedings

The role of users' privacy concerns in the decision for smart battery electric vehicle charging

As the availability of electricity from renewable sources in the power grid can fluctuate greatly, smart charging of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is an effective approach to balance the grid. However, user centred smart BEV charging requires detailed settings of the BEV drivers’ mobility and consumption needs as well as the collection and processing of personal data. This may lead to privacy concerns among users and reduce their willingness to use smart BEV charging. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the role of users’ privacy concerns in the decision for smart BEV charging. To this end, an online questionnaire study with N = 103 participants was conducted in Germany in 2023. The sample consisted of 62 women and 41 men, with an average age of 31 years (SD = 15.52; Min = 18 years; Max = 67 years). Participants were well educated and had on average 3,625 km driving experience with BEVs (SD = 7,397.13; Min = 0 km; Max = 38,000 km) within the last 12 months. Results revealed that smart BEV charging was perceived as significantly more critical in terms of data disclosure as conventional charging (p ≤ .043). The possibility of unauthorized persons gaining access to personal data was rated as the highest risk followed by the identity of possible data recipients compared to the possibility of data loss (p < .01). Further, participants’ perceived criticality of data disclosure significantly predicted their willingness to participate in smart BEV charging when controlling for participants BEV driving and charging experience (Radj2 = .075, F(3,102) = 3.8, p = .013). Within this study, we provided first empirical evidence that participants’ concerns regarding privacy emerged as a potential obstacle to their willingness to engage in smart BEV charging practices. Finally, we show strategies for reducing privacy concerns and increasing the willingness to participate in smart BEV charging.

Madlen Günther, Bettina Kämpfe, Josef Krems

Conference Proceedings

Car commuters’ requirements for using light electric vehicles (LEV)

Light Electric Vehicles (LEV) have the potential to provide a sustainable mobility solution for daily commuting. LEV encompass a diverse range, from e-bikes to microcars, altogether offering energy-efficient options compared to traditional cars. Despite their environmental benefits, LEV are not much established yet. The work reported here aimed to identify user requirements and perceived use barriers of LEV regarding the use case of daily commuting with individuals who habitually use a car for this purpose. The study involved an online survey (n = 51) and an online user workshop (n = 8). The results of the survey indicate that requirements arising from typical characteristics of the commuting route are met by various LEV classes. However, looking at further user wishes that were widely expressed in the sample, such as protection against adverse weather conditions, LEV models that have a cabin appear more likely to meet the requirements. The workshop further highlighted a preference for more "car-like" LEV. Interestingly, the use phase of getting started with LEV evoked more controversy than the phase of use itself, and the “E” aspect within “LEV” (electric drive) clearly dominated the discussion, compared to the “L” aspect (small and lightweight construction). Though the discussion implied that the status quo with the car acts as a strong anchor in the users’ appraisal of the LEV, participants expressed an openness to LEV, given that charging facilities are accessible and cost considerations are addressed. Users are open to adopting LEV, provided that the pricing is competitive and reflects the perceived trade-offs in vehicle features. This research sheds light on user perspectives, emphasizing the importance of addressing barriers to enhance the integration of LEV into daily commuting practices.

Annika Dreßler, Emma Höfer, Mascha Brost, Laura Gebhardt, Michael Böhm

Conference Proceedings

Assessing Energy-Related Situation Awareness Using Self-Controlled Occlusion During Electric Vehicle Driving Scenes

Optimal eco-driving in electric vehicles (EVs) can be challenging due to volatile, bidirectional energy flows and the difficulty of directly sensing energy flows. The present research investigates energy-related situation awareness (Energy Dynamics Awareness, EDA) as a pilot study. EDA is a theoretical concept that helps to describe and understand how visual energy feedback displays inform energy-efficient vehicle control decisions. We compared three methods (estimation tasks, subjective EDA rating scale, and gaze behavior metric) to assess EDA under two different workload conditions, using a video-based online study displaying EV driving scenes (N = 29). We developed a novel approach to collect gaze behavior indicators using self-controlled (i.e., manually directed) occlusion through keyboard input. Participants were asked to estimate and compare the energy consumed in EV driving scenes while performing a parallel visuospatial n-back task to induce cognitive load. Based on our findings, the n-back task successfully induced cognitive load and self-directed occlusion showed to be a promising method for energy display evaluation studies. The performance of the consumption estimation task and display fixations were influenced by cognitive workload, which has important implications for ecodriving interface design. As the subjective and performance-related measures of EDA did not correlate, the results contribute to the discussion on the divergence between subjective and objective measures of situation awareness. This pilot study encourages further research with a larger sample and adapted methods.

Markus Gödker, Thomas Franke

Conference Proceedings

Feeling comfortable? Exploring the relation between personality, competence, and range interaction in electric vehicles

As electric vehicles (EVs) become increasingly prevalent, understanding drivers' interactions with range and their charging behavior is crucial for supporting optimal system design and adoption. The present study investigates the link of technology-related driver characteristics, such as affinity for technology interaction (ATI), to range interaction and charging behavior and explores how driving experience with EVs impacts drivers’ comfortable range. Two online surveys (NS1 = 205, NS2 = 57) were conducted, focusing on range interaction and charging behavior. Results revealed that drivers with higher ATI tend to have higher comfortable range values, and this relationship is mediated by subjective range competence (SRC). Additionally, drivers who base their charging decisions on their preferred charge level are likely to have already experienced lower displayed remaining range values, suggesting potentially more efficient battery utilization. These findings suggest the importance of considering personality variables and charging behavior patterns in promoting efficient EV usage. Moreover, we found that most drivers in our sample mainly charge at home, and there is still a large proportion of drivers who do little to no public charging. Strategies focusing on enhancing drivers' SRC and addressing individual differences, particularly in technology-related variables, could help to better cope with situations involving range stress and bridge the gap between technical and comfortable range.

Markus Gödker, Vivien Moll, Thomas Franke

Conference Proceedings

Efficiently Explained: Leveraging the SEEV Cognitive Model for Optimal Explanation Delivery

It is inherent to autonomous systems that they exhibit very complex behaviour and that these complex and flexible patterns of behaviour are in general less comprehensible and foreseeable to humans interacting with the systems. It is generally accepted wisdom that suitable explanations can help humans to understand the functioning of these systems. This, in turn, enhances safety, trust, and societal acceptance through meaningful interaction. Our algorithmic approach starts from the observation that the design of explanations has two essential dimensions to it, namely, content on the one hand and frequency and timing on the other. While there has been extensive research on the substance of explanations, there has been comparatively limited exploration into the precise timing details of explanations. Existing studies on explanation timing often focus on broad distinctions, such as delivering explanations before, during, or after the use of the system. Regarding Autonomous Vehicles (AVs), studies indicate that occupants generally prefer receiving an explanation prior to the occurrence of an autonomous action. However, extended exposure and use of a specific AV may likely diminish the necessity for explanations. Since understanding the explanations can add to (cognitive/mental) workload, this observation suggests the importance of optimising both the frequency –—skipping explanations when unnecessary to minimise workload—– and the precise timing of explanations, delivering them when they offer the maximum reduction in workload. The interesting fact here is that additional mental workload for the passengers can be caused both by providing and by skipping an explanation: Any explanation that is presented requires cognitive processing for its comprehension, even when its content is considered redundant by the addressee (e.g. due to the explanation content already being familiar to the passenger) or is not memorised (e.g. when an early explanation becomes superimposed by successive events due to the limited capacity of working memory). In contrast, a skipped explanation may prompt the passenger to actively scan the environment for potential cues (e.g. to understand the reasons for an unfamiliar action of the AV) and such an attention strategy induces cognitive workload itself. Concerning the latter effect, Kantowitz has investigated the relation between attention and mental workload and concluded that even simple models of attention are sufficient to predict the mental workload. In this work, we develop a probabilistic reactive game model of mental workload and the impact of explanations on it. It consists of a workload model based on SEEV as a probabilistic component modelling the human and the self-explaining AV function as the other player. The resulting 1.5-player game or Markov Decision Process facilitates to automatically synthesize a rational reactive strategy which will present explanations to the human only when beneficial and then at the optimal time, thereby minimising the cognitive workload of the human.

Akhila Bairy, Martin Fränzle

Conference Proceedings

Clustering Analysis of Research Direction for Intelligent Cockpit Ergonomics based on Knowledge Mapping

Intelligent cabins have become a hot topic in the development of automated vehicles, with a focus on multimodal human-computer interaction. Using knowledge mapping, this paper investigates international literature regarding intelligent cockpits (IC) over the past 22 years. The research characteristics are analyzed through cluster analysis, based on which the future development directions are provided. Since 2019, there has been a significant increase in global publication volume. Researchers have extensively researched new functions and technologies such as gesture interaction, virtual environment, human-machine interface, external human machine interface, and human-machine interaction, with some technologies already being applied in practice. The extension of intelligent cockpit-related concepts has further developed technologies such as electronic skin, health detection, speech emotion recognition, and electromyography control. In the future, nanomaterials with excellent properties will be further integrated and applied in intelligent cabins to adapt to their highly integrated functional module group. Fields such as biology, mathematics and systems science, ophthalmology and neuroscience, physics, and chemistry are involved in the development of IC. The main development features of IC are multimodal interaction, virtual-real combined display, virtual agents, and emotional interaction. Overall, the safety, comfort, and convenience of passengers have always been the prime goals of the research on IC.

Quan Yuan, Qingkun Li, Jun Li, Jiangqi Zhu

Conference Proceedings

Assessing the Impact of Driver Assistance Technology: A Review of Non-Crash and Crash Studies

Level 2 advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), sometimes referred to as partial automation systems, control both longitudinal and lateral motion of a vehicle under driver control and supervision. Level 2 systems are increasingly common in commercially available vehicles, and there has been extensive study of the potential impact of these systems on crash risk. Historically, studies of these systems have used proxies for crash risk, such as driver behavior and attentiveness, to predict the eventual influence of these systems on real-world crash rates. However, recently, real-world crash studies have been conducted for L2 systems from multiple manufacturers. This paper provides a review of both non-crash and crash-based evaluations of Level 2 systems, including a new analysis of crash data published by Tesla. Overall, while non-crash assessments of Level 2 systems have been mixed, all crash studies published to date point to a reduction in risk associated with such systems. This review also suggests improvements to non-crash studies that may increase their predictive value.

Kristin Lennox, Iiona Scully, Julio Yanes, David Cades

Conference Proceedings

Driving with anxiety/fear/apprehension: understanding the cognitive and emotional experience of drivers to design assistance systems

More than half of all drivers experience at least “occasionally” uncomfortable driving situations where emotions such as Anxiety/Fear/Apprehension (AFA) occur (52.2%), and even 17% of people declare being particularly hampered, or even handicapped in their daily lives, by their fear of driving. With Renault Group, an ergonomic approach has been implemented with the aim of designing driving assistance systems to improve the comfort and safety for this type of drivers. We report on the results of two successive studies carried out as the first steps of this project, to (study 1) identify the anxiety-provoking situations and the profile of people who are subject to this type of feelings, and (study 2) to obtain an in-depth understanding of the history and lived experience of these drivers in problematic situations. Study 1’s results show that women experience higher levels of AFA than men in all tested driving situations and particularly on winding roads, when driving unfamiliar vehicles or when driving at night. Young drivers (aged 18-35) report AFA more frequently than older drivers. However, situations involving specifically vision-related issues are perceived as more anxiety-provoking by those aged 66 and over, as well as driving with an agitated or talkative passenger. Explanatory hypotheses, both cultural and cognitive, are proposed for these different results. Study 2 aims to deepen the previous results through a qualitative approach. 26 anxious drivers (2/3 women) aged 22 to 75 were interviewed individually (1) about their driving history and (2) the driving situations they were most apprehensive about. Then, they were asked (3) to describe in detail one anxiety-provoking driving situation, using the Explicitation Interview method, to question the dynamics of the cognitive activities, actions, thoughts, perceptions, and emotions at that moment, (4) to elicit the coping strategies they might use to manage anxiety-provoking situations, and (5) to imagine potential assistance systems. The results highlight that lack of confidence, low driving frequency, having an accident, having stressful supervisors while you’re learning to drive, can lead to AFA. Women and young people mentioned more coping strategies than the others. Moreover, men feeling AFA while driving described their emotions and difficulties less directly than women. The fact that men are clearly less concerned by AFA while driving remains an issue to be investigated.

Hugo Breard, Béatrice Cahour, Jean-marie Burkhardt, Arnaud Koustanai

Conference Proceedings

Relationship between gaze behavior and whole-body movement during car ingress

Car ingress and egress are the most physically demanding activities in car use, particularly for older people with weak muscles. In a survey of elderly people in Japan regarding car use, the load on the legs and back during ingress and egress was ranked at the top of complaint. Reducing the load during car ingress and egress will make it easier for older people to use cars and is expected to contribute to maintaining and improving the quality of life for aging societies. Many studies regarding car ingress and egress have mainly focused on the motion analysis of the whole-body movement. However, the movement needs to be modified in response to the visual information regarding the spatial relationship between a narrow space of the car entrance and the body. We therefore investigated in the present study the relationship between gaze behavior and whole-body movement during car ingress. Based on the findings, we discussed whether patterns of whole-body movement to enter the car are related at least in part to how individuals look at the car entrance.12 young adults between the ages of 18 and 21(Mean =20.2, SD=0.94; 2 women and 10 men) participated. A mock-up of a car with doors was used to measure the gaze behavior and whole-body movement. There were two roof height conditions: high (1500 mm from the floor) and low (1330 mm). Gaze behavior was measured using a Pupil Labs eye tracker, while whole-body movement was measured using a Qualisys motion capture system capturing 25-point markers attached to the participant’s whole body. For the gaze behavior, fixated locations were categorized into one of four locations: roof area, door area, floor area, and other in cabin. The results of the cluster analysis using the total time spent gazing at each fixated location showed three main groups of gaze patterns. The first group was characterized with looking mostly on the floor, possibly perceiving the car entrance with the peripheral vision. The participants categorized in the first group tended to show bending the upper body in a forward-leaning position. The second group was characterized with looking around the area surrounded with the roof and door. The participants categorized in this group leaned their upper body backward when entering the car. The participants categorized into third group kept looking at the floor (i.e., with longer fixation time) bended the upper body in a sideways-leaning position. These findings suggest that patterns of whole-body movement to enter the car are related at least in part to the gaze behavior. The findings also suggest that technologies or other means that lead the car-user’s fixations in proper location will help not only to avoid collisions with the car frames but also to reduce the load of car ingress.

Eisuke Okane, Tomokazu Furuya, Juntaro Sakazaki, Ken Kikuchi, Takahiro Higuchi

Conference Proceedings

Driver Cognitive Distraction Classification While Using Eco-driving Applications

Onboard eco-driving systems that provide speed guidance and encourage fuel and emission reduction have become increasingly popular. However, such systems may cause driver distraction, highlighting the need for cognitive attention monitoring capabilities. This study investigates how to accurately detect cognitive distraction when drivers interact with an eco-driving system in both acceleration and deceleration scenarios. Using the random forest algorithm, driving and glance features were extracted to classify drivers’ cognitive attentional states. Results showed that the glance feature was the most effective factor for detecting cognitive distraction, achieving 90.8% accuracy in the acceleration scenario. This study contributes to the design of effective eco-driving systems that can accurately monitor drivers' cognitive attention and enhance safety.1.BackgroundWith the advancement of connected-vehicle technologies, the onboard eco-driving systems may provide drivers with real-time information about their driving behavior and traffic conditions, encouraging them to optimize their driving speed and thus reduce fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. A growing body of research has examined the impact of these systems and discovered that implementing these systems could result in an average of 6.6% reduction in fuel consumption (ranging from 1% to 30%), making eco-driving an appealing option to protect the environment. In our study, we concentrate on examining drivers' cognitive distractions while interacting with eco-driving systems and identifying effective methods to detect and mitigate such distractions, with a specific focus on scenarios involving both acceleration and deceleration.2.Method Twenty-one drivers (15 males, 6 females), between 18 and 48 years of age (Mean = 26.11, SD =9.11), were recruited for a driving simulator experiment. All participants wore masks throughout the experiments for COVID-19 protection. All of them had normal or corrected-to-normal vision (using contact lenses). One female participant did not finish the experiment due to motion sickness. Her data were excluded from further analysis. Therefore, 20 valid users’ data remained for the rest of the analysis. They had an average of 8.5 years of driving experience (SD = 9.7). Pupil-Labs eye tracker was used to record participant’s eye movements during the experiment. The device captures video and audio streams, detects pupils, tracks gaze, tracks surface tracker, and records the data in an open format.3.Results and FindingsWe utilized the random forest algorithm, a machine learning approach, to analyze the comprehensive dataset comprising both driving and gaze metrics. The intent was to classify the cognitive attentional states of drivers. The analysis yielded a notable finding. The glance behavior emerged as a highly effective indicator of cognitive distraction, particularly in acceleration scenarios, where it demonstrated a remarkable detection accuracy of 90.8%. This key discovery underscores the criticality of visual attention as a metric in driver behavior and cognitive engagement, especially in the context of interactions with eco-driving systems.

Rui Lin, Pei Wang

Conference Proceedings

Framework for the evaluation of a holistic fitness-to-drive system for commercial drivers in the PANACEA project

Commercial drivers have a challenging work environment and often report being fatigued or stressed while driving [1]. Key considerations are the impact of shift work, task related fatigue, and impairment due to alcohol or drug use. The PANACEA project aims to create a holistic approach, during and roadside driving ability monitoring and assessment system. The system will assess the physical, cognitive, and psychological Fitness-to-Drive of commercial drivers. In cases of impairment, a complementary cloud-based countermeasures and coaching tool will deploy appropriate solutions targeting drivers, operators, and enforcement. It is intended that the PANACEA system will detect fitness-to-drive prior to starting work and during the work shift. In addition, it will prepare drivers ahead of their future shifts. To enable a systematic evaluation of the PANACEA system in various commercial driver groups, an evaluation framework was developed.MethodsCommonly used frameworks from different fields were reviewed. Previous reviews of evaluation frameworks have concluded that there is an abundance of frameworks available but no single framework that covers all aspects of evaluation [2-4]. Several transportation system evaluation frameworks exist, but these mostly focus on evaluation of the societal impact and economic benefits [3, 5] or environmental impact [6].None of the reviewed frameworks provided a perfect fit for the PANACEA project. The PANACEA project has its starting point in the project objectives, which are a combination of technology development, technology evaluation, knowledge creation, and impact assessment objectives. As there are various types of data collections planned, the framework needs to be flexible enough to allow for a range of different study designs. Moreover, the development of the PANACEA system will follow an iterative development process, where the results of initial data collections will be fed back to refine the PANACEA solutions. Lastly, the framework needs to cover the evaluation of the final PANACEA system, including the technical performance, usefulness and operability, user experiences, safety, socioeconomic impact etc. ResultsAn evaluation framework was developed by reviewing and combining components from commonly used frameworks in both the automotive and clinical research field. The FESTA methodology [7] was used as the foundation and the various steps in the evaluation process were adapted to suit the purpose of the PANACEA project.The evaluation process is divided into three phases; planning, implementation, and analysis and reporting. Within each phase, there are several steps to follow in the evaluation process. The steps are described as sequential steps in a linear way, where each step provides the necessary input for completion of the next step. The evaluation framework has a mixed methods approach combining qualitative and quantitative methods. ConclusionAn evaluation framework incorporating components from several previous frameworks was developed within the PANACEA project, setting the plan for data collection, analysis, and reporting. The PANACEA framework will be used in all studies included in the project to achieve effective and systematic data collection to provide a solid evidence base for assessment of progress and impact over time.The PANACEA project has received funding by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement number 953426.References1.Filtness, A., et al., Bus driver fatigue. 2019, Transport for London: London, UK.2.Fynn, J.F., et al., A scoping review of evaluation frameworks and their applicability to real-world physical activity and dietary change programme evaluation. BMC Public Health, 2020. 20(1): p. 1000.3.Newman-Askins, R., L. Ferreira, and J.M. Bunker. Intelligent transport systems evaluation: From theory to practice. in 21st ARRB and 11th REAAA Conference. 2003.4.Yusof, M.M., et al., An evaluation framework for Health Information Systems: human, organization and technology-fit factors (HOT-fit). International Journal of Medical Informatics, 2008. 77(6): p. 386-398.5.He, J., Z. Zeng, and Z. Li, Benefit Evaluation Framework of Intelligent Transportation Systems. Journal of Transportation Systems Engineering and Information Technology, 2010. 10(1): p. 81-87.6.Jansuwan, S., et al., An evaluation framework of automated electric transportation system. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 2021. 148: p. 102265.7.Barnard, Y., et al., Methodology for Field Operational Tests of Automated Vehicles. Transportation Research Procedia, 2016. 14: p. 2188-2196.

Anna Sjörs Dahlman, Anna Anund, Katerina Touliou, Iosu Erauskin

Conference Proceedings

“Pay attention to that aggressive vehicle”: The effect of Aggressive Vehicle Warning Systems on driving behavior and perceived workload

Aggressive driving is a common issue in daily life and brings negative impacts on traffic efficiency and road safety. Advances in connected vehicle technology facilitate vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication and allow drivers to better understand the intentions and behaviors of surrounding vehicles, providing new ideas for addressing the challenges posed by aggressive driving. In a driving simulator experiment, the present study aimed to explore the effect of aggressive vehicle warning systems (AVWSs) on driving behavior and perceived workload during hazard events. AVWSs access vehicles’ driving styles based on their past behaviors and present visual-auditory messages when it perceives the driving style of a nearby vehicle as aggressive. Eighteen drivers participated in the experiment and were randomly assigned to two groups, one with messages from the AVWS (AVWS group) and the other without messages (baseline group). Each driver experienced three types of hazard events caused by surrounding aggressive vehicles: braking, lane-changing, and traffic rules violations at intersections. The results indicated that the AVWS could orient drivers’ attention to the aggressive vehicle in advance, thereby reducing their risk of being involved in collisions in unpredictable intersection events and reducing their response time in emergency braking events. Drivers in the AVWS group also perceived a lower level of mental workload and frustration than those in the baseline group when experiencing hazard events. However, caution should be taken when there are conflicts between the message and the actual situation, such as vehicles with non-aggressive driving styles exhibiting aggressive driving behavior. The findings of this study may provide some implications for the design of driving assistance systems, especially in intelligent vehicles.

Yi Wang, Wei Zhang

Conference Proceedings

Physiological and psychological performance measurement for the practical driving test

Even with the advancement of automobile technologies supporting drivers in most situations on the road, the practical driving test required to obtain a driver’s license in Germany is still a major obstacle for students. Although additional tools such as driving simulation systems as well as mobile apps are available for initial driving training, the failure rate stagnated around 37% for the last ten years, according to the ADAC, the largest german automobile club. In Germany, students learn to drive with the help of private companies specialized on teaching and leading the students up to the official practical driving test demanded by government regulations to obtain a driver’s license.Using a multimodal sensory setup obtaining biophysiological and derived mental state data of each driving student, the resulting database is used to identify possible causes about fatal driving errors. Each student is evaluated and accompanied throughout his or her entire learning journey, starting with a questionnaire-based personality trait test. Using synchronization by timestamp, the biophysiological data most related to stress, such as HRV, EDA or eye tracking, are collected both while within the driving simulation system and on the real-world road. Besides collected sensor-based data, the database is also enriched with subjective insights provided by the student before and after each driving session. On the road, the driving instructor assessment, a standardized driving log, containing special events and student behaviour, as well as an event-synchronized video recording is added to each dataset. For analysis of the collected data, particular attention is paid to anomalies correlated to special events during each session to identify situational patterns which may be associated to an increased failure rate in the final, official practical driving test. The gained insights are then used to optimize driving training to actively reduce the practical driving test failure rate.

Tobias Rusch, Benjamin Hübner, Silja Meyer-nieberg, Wolfgang Winter, Armin Leopold, Marko Hofmann, Cornelia Küsel

Conference Proceedings

Validation of a one-item acute stress scale for driving tasks

Emergency personnel, such as ambulance crews and firefighters, must perform well both mentally and physically during emergency responses around the clock. The opportunity for recovery and rest is often limited during their shifts. This can lead to an increased risk of fatigue and perceived stress during emergency responses, which also increases the risk of traffic accidents. Stress has been identified as a contributing factor to road crashes due to its negative impact on driving performance [1-3]. Stress increases the crash risk by affecting cognitive abilities, resulting in inadequate information processing and imperfect perception which may, in turn, lead to deterioration of driver performance [4]. Physiological measurements can be used to detect driver stress but there is also a need for subjective ratings scales that are easy to use in a driving setting. Driver sleepiness is often measured with the 9-point one-item Karolinska Sleepiness Scale [5] but there is no equivalent measure of acute driver stress. In this study we investigated if a one-item stress scale could be used to measure acute driver stress in an ambulance simulator. The VTI acute stress scale (VSS) was developed to quantify perceived stress. The 9 verbal anchors are designed to match the verbal anchors of the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS). The VSS anchors are: 1 completely relaxed (feeling entirely calm and relaxed), 2 very relaxed, 3 relaxed, 4 rather relaxed, 5 neither relaxed nor stressed, 6 slightly stressed, 7 stressed (feeling some tension and pressure), 8 very stressed, 9 extremely stressed (feeling very tense and under high pressure, on the verge of what I can handle).A simulator trial was conducted with ambulance driving scenarios designed to induce various stress levels in emergency response personnel. Each participant performed three simulator tasks: task A was a low-stress routine drive, task B was a medium-stress urgent callout, task C was a high-stress emergency response. The tasks were counterbalanced between participants. The participants completed a questionnaire with questions about task load (NASA-TLX), stress (9-point VSS scale), and sleepiness (9-point KSS scale) after each drive.Participants (33 men and 16 women) were recruited among ambulance personnel and emergency response personnel in western Sweden. Data collections took place at two different ambulance stations on five different occasions in 2022. The study protocol was approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (ref 2021-04352). Forty-eight drivers had VSS ratings from all three drives. The mean ratings were A=3.17 (SD 1.58, range 1-7), B=3.77 (SD 1.59, range 1-6), and C=4.65 (SD 1.77, range 1-7). An ANOVA with task (A, B, C) as a fixed factor and participant as a random factor showed that there was a significant difference in VSS ratings between tasks (F=22.9, p<0.001, η2=0.330). Post-hoc tests (TukeyHSD) showed that task A had significantly lower rating than task B (p=0.021) and task C (p<0.001) and task B had significantly lower ratings than task C (p<0.001). The stress ratings were moderate throughout the trials, with no ratings above 7 on the 9-point scale. This could be due to simulator scenarios not being perceived as equally stressful as real-life emergency driving situations. The VSS was significantly correlated with NASA-TLX subscales mental demand (r=0.606), physical demand (r=0.419), temporal demand (r=0.605), performance (r=0.313), effort (r=0.541), and frustration (r=0.553). These medium correlations show that the VSS acute stress score is related to but not identical to workload. In conclusion, the VSS can be used to measure acute driver stress in moderately stressful driving conditions.This study was funded by a grant from the strategic vehicle research and innovation (FFI) program at Sweden’s Innovation Agency (VINNOVA), grant number 2020-05157, and through the SUAB project financed by the European Social Fund, grant number 2020/00110.1.Mou, L., et al., Driver stress detection via multimodal fusion using attention-based CNN-LSTM. Expert Systems with Applications, 2021. 173: p. 114693.2.Rastgoo, M.N., et al., A critical review of proactive detection of driver stress levels based on multimodal measurements. ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), 2018. 51(5): p. 1-35.3.Beanland, V., et al., Driver inattention and driver distraction in serious casualty crashes: Data from the Australian National Crash In-depth Study. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 2013. 54: p. 99-107.4.Wiberg, H., et al., Physiological responses related to moderate mental load during car driving in field conditions. Biological psychology, 2015. 108: p. 115-125.5.Åkerstedt, T. and M. Gillberg, Subjective and Objective Sleepiness in the Active Individual International Journal of Neuroscience, 1990. 52(1-2): p. 29-37.

Anna Sjörs Dahlman, Kåre Karlsson, Stefan Candefjord, Anna Anund

Conference Proceedings

Understanding Driver's Emotion and Attention in the Context of Augmented Reality Head-up Display System

As one of the primary psychological factors, the emotion of the driver affects the driving behaviour constantly. Negative emotions may lead to improper driving behaviour, threatening the safety of drivers, and even endangering society. Monitoring and regulating drivers' emotions while they are behind the wheel is crucial. It not only helps to lower the risks on the road, but it also enables a novel approach to driver-car interactions. Augmented reality head-up display (AR-HUD), as a developing technology, has been invested in the innovation of automobile driving, with promising potential to support driving and change driver-vehicle interaction. While research on driver emotion is well developed, more study is needed in the context of the AR-HUD system is still emergent for the future industry. The paper presents a systematic literature review to highlight recent research on driver’s emotion in the context of the AR-HUD system. The paper explores the integration of emotional recognition technologies into AR-HUD systems, examining their effectiveness in improving driver mood and reducing the risk of accidents. This review also discusses the challenges and future directions in this field, proposing ways to optimize AR-HUD systems for better emotional awareness and road safety.

Jingyi Wan, Jun Zhang, Yan Luximon

Conference Proceedings

The Impact of Autonomous Driving Takeover Assistance Information Design on Driver Takeover Performance and Situational Awareness

When the L3 autonomous driving system reaches the system boundary and is no longer able to perform operations safely, the system may still help the driver return to the driving task in a safe manner by providing takeover assistance information. This research explores the impact of HMI presenting different levels of takeover assistance information on driver takeover performance and situational awareness in autonomous driving scenarios. Experimental results show that for drivers with rich driving experience, HMI should focus on providing (SA1) situation awareness and (SA2) scene understanding; while for drivers with little driving experience, HMI should provide a combination of (SA1) situation awareness, (SA2) scene understanding (SA2) HMI for scene understanding and (SA3) behavior prediction. Based on this, a takeover auxiliary information model based on situational awareness was constructed. Which can better assist drivers with different driving experience to quickly establish situational awareness and make correct decisions during autonomous driving takeover, thereby achieving safe takeover. The research results provide certain guidance for the information design in the takeover process of future autonomous vehicles, and also emphasize the necessity of considering driving experience as an influencing factor in the design of auxiliary information for takeover.

Lintong Xie, Xiao Fang Yuan

Conference Proceedings

EEG-based Prediction of Driver Takeover Performance

In the context of conditional autonomous driving, ensuring a safe takeover is of paramount importance. While previous studies have delved into factors influencing drivers’ takeover performance, there remains a gap in research concerning the development of performance models capable of predicting takeover quality. To address this challenge, this study focuses on predicting driver takeover performance before the issuance of a takeover request based on Electroencephalogram (EEG) features. For this purpose, 72 subjects were recruited to participate in a driving simulation experiment, responding to a total of eight takeover events. Both their EEG signals and driving performance data were recorded. The takeover performance was subsequently categorized as high, medium, or low quality through a subjective review of the takeover process videos. A total of 480 EEG features, such as the power of α band, were extracted. Five machine learning models: Decision Trees (DT), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest (RF), Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM), and Multi-layer Perceptron (MLP), were utilized to develop the takeover performance prediction models. The results showed that the LightGBM model outperformed others, achieving an accuracy of 84.2% and an F1 score of 83.0%. In contrast, the DT model demonstrated the lowest performance, with an accuracy of 59.4% and an F1 score of 57.8%. This study underscores the potential of machine learning models in predicting driver takeover performance, thereby contributing to the advancement of machine learning applications in the field of autonomous driving.

Jinhui Huang, Tingru Zhang

Conference Proceedings

Effects of interactive modality on the spatiotemporal characteristics of driver eye movement

In-vehicle information system (IVIS), as crucial components in the vehicles, provide drivers with convenient functionalities but also pose potential safety hazards. Operating these systems requires visual attention, potentially increasing the risk of accidents. While previous researches focused on static eye metrics like fixation and saccade, limited attention has been given to spatiotemporal eye movement characteristics crucial for information acquisition while driving. This study investigated the impacts of three modalities (voice-based, touchscreen-based, and gesture-based) on spatiotemporal characteristics of driver eye movement. Thirty-six participants were recruited to a simulated driving experiment, with one group acting as baseline without non-driving related tasks (NDRTs), while others performed NDRTs using one of different interactive modalities. Scanpaths, fixation entropy, and visual transition probability matrices were analyzed to understand spatiotemporal characteristics. A new comparison method based on ScanMatch algorithm was proposed to measure the similarity of scanpaths. The K-means clustering was used to identify areas of interest (AOIs), while Shannon’s equation was applied to calculate fixation entropy. Visual transition probability matrices normalized transition counts, revealing areas with the most transitions. Results showed the voice group's eye movements closely resembled the baseline, with higher entropy in driving-related AOIs. In contrast, the touchscreen group had lower entropy and a higher likelihood of distraction. Thus, voice-based interaction had the least distracting effect, resembling baseline eye movement patterns. These findings offer insights for designing safer IVIS interactions to reduce traffic accidents.

Lin Jie, Xing Liu, Tingru Zhang, Alan Chan

Conference Proceedings

Driving Fatigue Recognition Based on the Combination of Multimodal Features

Effective identification of driving fatigue is extremely important for reducing casualties and property losses. Therefore, this paper proposes a driving fatigue recognition method based on the combination of multimodal features. Firstly, multimodal features based on photoplethysmography, eye state and vehicle motion are extracted according to the physiological and driving characteristics of driving fatigue. Secondly, C-SVM-RFE algorithm is used to optimize the features for improving the accuracy of the driving fatigue recognition. Finally, Support Vector Machine is used to establish the driving fatigue recognition model. In order to validate the driving fatigue recognition model, the photoplethysmography data, facial video data and vehicle motion data of 30 subjects in different driving states were collected, and then were processed using the above process. The results show that the model has a high accuracy in recognizing the fatigue state of the samples consisting of data from 30 subjects. It can be concluded that the method of driving fatigue recognition based on the combination of multimodal features can provide a means of driver monitoring for the traffic safety management, and reduce traffic accidents caused by driving fatigue.

Zehong Wei, Jiaxin Wang, Lei Shi, Qingju Wang, Yuanyuan Ren, Xuelian Zheng

Conference Proceedings

A Novel Adaptive Physio-Behavioral Method for Optimizing Performance: Using Grip Force for Augmenting Driver Training

The quest to remove the human factor from the equation of system performance led to the ironies of automation. Adaptive automation is an alternative approach, which aims to harmoniously integrate the person and the system, to fully utilize the maximum potential of each of the parties. Adaptive systems to the user's state offer significant advantages, such as reducing workload and improving performance. In the application of adaptive automation capabilities in driving, the existing methods suffer from practical limitations and shortcomings, which make it difficult to realize these capabilities. Among these shortcomings are large delays between the relevant event and the appearance of the physiological signs of stress in various measures, as well as the intrusiveness of the measurement means and their disturbance to the driver. Grip force is a physiological-behavioral measure of stress, which has relatively small delays and which can be easily integrated into operational means in a way that does not disturb the user. Here, we describe a series of studies highlighting an innovative method for capitalizing on stress, optimizing the driver's performance according to the psychological stress, which is measured unobtrusively according to the grip force. While stress is one of the aspects that has significant implications for the driver's performance and safety, an optimal level of stress is conducive for performance.We established an adaptive method for measuring and deciphering the psychological stress of the operator according to the grip force, in a variety of environments, tasks and means of operation. These included five studies, with a total of 157 participants, using driving, tele-driving, driving in a simulator, and computer games. Operation means used in these studies are steering wheels and joysticks. Diverse stress manipulations targeted social and performance aspects during the experiments, while strictly adhering to the rules of ethics to avoid any harm to the participants. Being a novel index of stress, grip force was validated according to skin conduction, heart rate and heart rate variability, as well as self reported stress.A detailed inspection was conducted of the time window, required for the recognition of stress according to grip force data. A 2 to 5 second time window was found proper. Various transfer functions were found useful for the translation of grip force to the stress level. Finally, a method for calculating the current stress level is described, overcoming interpersonal variability with fast automatic calibration. Applying the principles of the method in a real-time training environment showed an improvement in the training efficiency measures compared to traditional non-adaptive training methods. In simulated environments, those who trained with this grip force-based stress-adaptive method achieved a higher level of expertise in performing the task, in a shorter training time than those who trained with other methods. Leveraging stress to augment driver performance, both during training and during real-time driving, holds the potential to improve road safety and save human lives. Applications of this method in other fields, such as aviation and remote medicine are discussed including recommendations for appropriate intervention methods.

Yotam Sahar, Michael Wagner, Shraga Shoval

Conference Proceedings

Understanding drivers' interaction with traffic environments - A traffic semantic approach

The pilot study approached traffic environments as semantic constructions to explore the meaning-making processes that shape road users' perceptions of and interactions with traffic environments. Conducted in a basic driving simulator, the study involved eight participants who viewed a pre-recorded video of a driven route, paused at six pre-defined traffic situations. Throughout the session, participants were encouraged to think aloud, and at each interval, they completed a questionnaire. Three interdependent contextual spheres were identified which influenced the participants’ perception and interpretation of the situations, risks involved, and how they would plan their actions: (a) the broader geographical area; (b) the specific traffic site encompassing dynamic traffic elements (i.e. other road users) and non-dynamic infrastructural elements (road layout, speed bumps, signage, etc.), and (c) the individual and their attributes (e.g. driving experience) as well as their earlier familiarity with the type of - or the specific - traffic site.

Marianne Karlsson, Mikael Johansson

Conference Proceedings

Analysis of Design for Sustainable Behavior in Driving: Theory, Methods, and Future Trends

Design for sustainable behavior, as an approach that comprehensively considers social, environmental, and economic factors, has garnered significant attention in the realm of contemporary sustainable development. When applied to automotive driving, incorporating the principles of sustainable behavior design becomes crucial in guiding users toward more eco-friendly driving habits and mitigating the additional energy consumption resulting from poor driving behaviors. This article begins by elucidating the theoretical foundation of design for sustainable behavior, focusing on major theoretical models in the field of behavioral science, specifically the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Comprehensive Action Determination Model (CADM).Moving forward, the article explores methods of design for sustainable behavior applicable during the driving phase. These methods encompass a variety of approaches, such as energy information feedback, user choices, feedback mechanisms, incentives, guidance, and interventions. Leveraging digital participation platforms, decision support systems, feedback incentive tools, among others, these methods aim to guide users and driving communities toward more sustainable behaviors on different levels. Emphasizing the analysis of the three crucial dimensions of design for sustainable behavior, the article introduces a behavioral dimension reference model.In conclusion, the article summarizes methods of design for sustainable behavior applied in the driving context and provides insights into future developments. While design for sustainable behavior has seen some success in automotive driving applications, broader dissemination and in-depth research are still required. Future research directions may include more personalized behavior design methods, the application of emerging technologies in this field, and the exploration of sustainable behavior patterns in diverse cultural contexts. By continually advancing theoretical research and expanding practical applications, design for sustainable behavior is poised to become an effective tool for enhancing automotive energy efficiency and contributing to societal sustainable development.

Jiaren Yang, Danhua Zhao

Conference Proceedings

Digital gamification as action to reduce road accidents: the videogame SLEEP-RO@D

Global, European, and national data show that road accidents (RA) are an increasingly important cause of injuries, disability and deaths. Our workday is significantly impacted by the road: in Europe up to 40% of road deaths are work-related. The causes of road injuries work-related and traffic accidents are the same and the excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), usually caused by insufficient and inadequate sleep quality and/or quantity, is considered an important factor of RA. Digital serious game, with an explicit and defined educational purpose, are emerging as new tools to promote psychological growth, well-being, and training. The aim of this study is to illustrate the development of a videogame on the knowledge, promotion, and education about sleep hygiene (SH) and RA, its perception and impact on occupational safety and health (OSH). Starting from a literature analysis on scientific articles about “sleep, health, and driving” topics (databases PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus), the SLEEP-RO@D game dynamic combined the literature results with the main RA causes to create an educational-participatory intervention as innovative tool for changing bad sleep hygiene behaviours and habits. At the end of the game cycle the player receives feedback and suggestions for enhancing sleep quality and general well-being, reducing the risk of RA increasing awareness, and promoting a good sleep hygiene in workplaces too. The videogame was tested on a convenience sample of 154 subjects (44.4% women, 55.6% men) with the average age of 33.6 years. The 63.0% of the participants report being unfamiliar with serious games and the 87% claim to have a very good and pleasurable user experience. Gamification can be a methodology directly aimed at increasing involvement, creating a perfect balance between learning and entertainment, where educational elements integrated into the gameplay, could be subconsciously acquired by the players.

Emma Pietrafesa, Sergio Garbarino, Simone Russo, Donatella Vasselli, Antonella Polimeni, Agnese Martini

Conference Proceedings

Analysis of Bus Driver Actions for Development of Automated Bus Passenger Safety System - Bowtie Analysis-

One of the key advantages of Level 4 automated buses is the potential for unmanned operation. To achieve this, two essential tasks must be addressed: controlling the bus and ensuring passenger safety. This study focuses specifically on passenger safety and the development of a safety system for automated buses. Initially, we investigated the tasks typically performed by bus drivers by observing their actions from when a passenger boards to when they disembark. For each task, we utilized bowtie analysis, examining them from five perspectives: hazard source (cause), prevention of occurrence, hazard source (consequences), impact mitigation, and harm. Tasks are categorized into three situations: door opening and closing, driving, and when starting. In each situation, every task is analysed using bowtie analysis. This approach results in a visual representation of tasks with identified threats, consequences, mitigations, and preventive measures. We will show a comprehensive explanation of all results and discussions derived from the analysis, utilizing real recorded driver’s data to enhance clarity. The primary challenge in developing the system to manage these tasks instead of relying on a bus driver lies in determining how the system will interact with passengers and the extent to which it can ensure passenger safety through the passenger safety system.

Naohisa Hashimoto, Wu Yanbin, Masaki Masuda

Conference Proceedings

Safety Culture Indicators - For Improvement Not Assessment

This paper presents the findings of an evidence-based review of safety culture indicators and their applicability to the railway industry. Safety culture continues to be a major area of interest for railway companies in many countries. Much of the research focus has been on the development and evaluation of assessment methodologies. More recently many railway regulators have produced guidance on safety culture (e.g., EU Railway Safety Agency, Transport Canada). Some regulators are also incorporating safety culture into their oversight activities. For example, in the UK the Office of Road and Rail includes culture in its RM3 process and in the USA the Federal Railroad Administration has conducted a supplemental safety audit of Norfolk Southern to assess its overall safety culture. There is now an interest from both companies and regulators to use safety culture indicators. To identify potential safety culture indicators, an environmental scan was conducted to identify existing safety culture indicators. We identified 154 safety culture indicators from a range of sources (e.g., RM3, Railway Association of Canada, Canada Energy Regulator). These indicators varied widely in how they were developed, their intended purpose, and their target industry. The second phase of research involved interviewing eight subject matter experts (SMEs) to create an evidenced-based framework for evaluating the indicators. We used thematic analysis to identify three criteria of importance. Firstly, indicators need to be related to safety culture, secondly, practical/collectable, and thirdly they need clear assessment criteria. Using these criteria, we refined the original list of indicators in two phases by getting SMEs to rate the indicators. Two separate groups of six SMEs rated the indicators. The indicators that had low scores on these criteria were removed. We retained 27 indicators after two independent rounds of assessment. This research reveals that many safety culture indicators have been created with limited or no evaluation. The fact that we only retained 27, questions the quality of many of these indicators. These indicators can only provide limited insight into safety culture and are not a replacement for a safety culture assessment, but they may assist organizations in identifying improvement opportunities. This paper outlines potential ways that the indicators could be used in practice, resources required, data collection and interpretation strategies. The paper concludes by outlining the limitations of the research and potential future directions.

Mark Fleming, Rebecca Cairns

Conference Proceedings

An assessment of two pedestrian safety inventories

Pedestrian safety inventories for auditing roadway features and infrastructure are a promising way to rapidly assess pedestrian injury likelihood in a city location, particularly when the auditor can score the location remotely via tools such as Google Street View (GSV). This study provided a preliminary assessment of whether two remote assessment inventories were as reliable as in-person auditing, and whether the two tools were associated with pedestrian safety measures. The researchers repeatedly performed crossings at six locations to collect safety outcome data. For the safety inventories, one team of coders scored the locations in-person, and a separate team of coders scored the locations in GSV. Analyses indicated generally good agreement between the in-person and GSV scores, and a significant relationship between the inventory scores and driver yielding/stopping rate to the crossing pedestrians. The two inventories were predictive for different reasons, and future research will further assess and refine them.

Curtis Craig, Marshall Mabry, Bradley Drahos, William Kessler, Thomas Lenz, Kara Olander, Nichole Morris

Conference Proceedings

How can the analysis of human factors in risky situations encountered by users of new forms of mobility improve their safety in the city?

This work is part of a research project called NewMob, funded by the French National Research Agency (ANR) and supervised by Université Paris Cité and Ergocentre.In France, we are witnessing strong growth in the number and type of Personal Light Electric Véhicule (PLEVs), as well as an increase in the number and severity of accidents involving these users. (Osnir, 2023) As a result, there is a general need for more knowledge about the behaviors of the various users of PLEVs and the risk situations they encounter on their journeys. The research question we will develop in this article is therefore as follows: To what extent can taking human factors into account in the risk situations encountered by users of new mobility help to improve their safety in the city?To investigate this question, we have set up three long-term studies in France's three biggest cities: Paris, Lyon and Marseille. These studies are part of the ergonomic analysis of human activity. (Leplat, 2015) Field methods were used to track and analyze the journeys of 150 participants: 65 electric bikes, 60 electric scooters and 25 gyroroues. Over a 2-month period, participants recorded all their daily journeys (video and data), and were able to report any risky situations they encountered during their journeys. For each situation, the participant had to fill in a detailed form, enabling us to analyze a total of around 955 risky situations collected. Two self-confrontation interviews enabled us to analyze the participants' situated experience of risky situations, their ways of dealing with incidents, and the strategies and compromises they implemented during their journeys.Vehicle dynamic data were recorded for a total of 9,124 trips, covering a distance of over 33,000 kilometers. This data include acceleration, speed, braking and lateral variations, enabling us to gather a wealth of statistical data, and to objectively qualify the criteria for identifying a high-risk situation (emergency avoidance, braking force, etc.). A major challenge of this project is to be able to cross-analyze the subjective data collected during interviews with objective vehicle dynamics data, enabling us to establish a complete overview of the different risk situations encountered by users of new urban mobility in France. Initial results are emerging from ongoing data analysis, and we will be able to present in greater detail the cross-profiling of participants across the various study methods (type of vehicle, number of risky situations, severity of situations, average speed of journeys, speeds in risky situations, participants' relationship to risk, etc.). Additionally, we will present the results of analyses on the main types of risky situations encountered by participants, along with comparisons between the different cities analyzed.

Benjamin Brunet, Samuel Aupetit, Philippe Cabon

Conference Proceedings

Exploring the Correlation between Emotions and Uncertainty in Daily Travel

Our mental state influences how we behave in and interact with the everyday world. Both uncertainty and emotions can alter our mental state and, thus, our behaviour. Although the relationship between uncertainty and emotions has been studied, research into this relationship in the context of daily travel is lacking. Emotions may influence uncertainty, just like uncertainty could trigger emotional responses. In this paper, a study is presented that explores the relationship between uncertainty and emotional states in the context of daily travel. Using a diary study method with 25 participants, emotions and uncertainty that are experienced during daily travel while using multiple modes of transport, were tracked for a period of 14 days. Diary studies allowed us to gain detailed insights and reflections on the emotions and uncertainty that participants experienced during their day-to-day travels. The diary allowed the participants to record their time-sensitive experiences in their relevant context over a longer period. These daily logs were made by the participants in the m-Path application. Participants logged their daily transportation modes, their emotions using the Geneva Emotion Wheel, and the uncertainty that they experienced while travelling. Results show that emotions and uncertainty influence each other simultaneously, with no clear causality. Specifically, this study observed a significant correlation between negative valence emotions (disappointment and fear) and uncertainty, which emphasises the importance of uncertainty and the management of negative valence emotions in travel experiences.

Mervyn Franssen, Rutger Verstegen, Pavlo Bazilinskyy, Marieke Martens

Conference Proceedings

Ridesharing as a part of modal shift: An Austrian Pilot case study.

Changing mobility behavior is a dynamic process that involves a combination of individual choices, technological advancements, and policy interventions to create a more sustainable and efficient transportation system. Efforts to change mobility behavior often focus on creating a multimodal transportation system that offers a variety of options for different circumstances. This can involve a combination of improving existing infrastructure, implementing new technologies, and adopting policies that encourage sustainable and efficient transportation choices. In the DOMINO project, we were focused on using ridesharing as a part of modal shift in Upper Austria. In a detailed elaboration, strategic and organizational prerequisites for an efficient control of transport infrastructure and means of transport (intermodal mobility) were recorded within the pilot regions of the DOMINO project. Thus, important preliminary work has already been done, which provided a basis for the further implementation of the project. The DOMINO pilot has provided valuable insights into the ridesharing field by evaluating the user data collected, especially by gathering experiential knowledge about what works and what does not. Despite these advances, ridesharing has yet to take root in the minds of users, and the transition from the convenience and flexibility of owning a vehicle remains a gradual process.

Farzaneh Darbanian, Melanie Juppe, Wolfgang Schildorfer, Reinhard Tockner, Christian Rudloff, Stefan Seer

Conference Proceedings

User Requirement Analysis for Voice and Gesture Interactions with Delivery Robots: An Interview Study

Urban mobility is rapidly changing. While increasing delivery volumes, traffic congestion, and a demand to reduce mobility-induced emissions challenge inner-city logistics, emerging technologies such as automated delivery robots might offer relief. Here, various interaction concepts are conceivable to ensure safe navigation and smooth communication with them.This study qualitatively examines user requirements and prevailing user perceptions of two communication modalities (voice interface and gesture interface) for interacting with delivery robots.We conducted 24 scenario-based interviews. Each interview included a part in which participants actively tried voice or gesture commands for operating the delivery robots. The practice part was intended to ensure that all participants get as realistic a sense as possible of how interactions might feel so that the discussion of requirements was not purely based on potentially flawed imaginations. Results were analyzed using qualitative content analysis and revealed universal barriers (e.g., ambiguousness of inputs) and differences regarding the two modes (e.g., privacy concerns).

Vivian Lotz, Eva-maria Schomakers, Martina Ziefle

Conference Proceedings

Redundant Brake Lights Design: Impact on Reaction Times of the Following Driver

This study investigated whether redundant vehicle braking light configurations reduce brake response time (RT). Brake lights play a crucial role in enhancing visibility and are instrumental in preventing rear-end collisions. Previous research conducted in laboratory and practical settings consistently highlights the effectiveness of redundant signals. Some modern car models feature a cross-configuration for their brake lights, forming an 'X' shape when the brake pedal is applied, intuitively signifying to stop. The study assessed the effectiveness of brake light configurations between traditional braking signals with a brighter red appearance and redundant signals (with an additional ‘X’ shape). Participants viewed a rear-end picture of a vehicle (either a schematic-car or real-car picture) with different brake light configurations simulating a car-following condition. They were instructed to press a right-side button to model the use of a gas pedal in a car-following condition. However, they were to release the right-side button and press the left-side button when the brake lights illuminated from the car in front. The results revealed that participants exhibited quicker reactions in the real-car picture condition than the RT in the schematic-car condition, indicating a more immediate response and a heightened sense of urgency associated with the real-car representation. More importantly, both release RT and stop RT in the simultaneous redundant brake lights condition were faster than in the traditional single-signal brake lights condition. Additionally, this advantage of the redundant effect was noticeable only when two redundant signals were simultaneously presented and were larger in the schematic-car condition. The findings suggest that incorporating redundant signals in brake light design can reduce braking response times and, consequently, lower the risk of rear-end collisions. Future research should examine this redundant effect in high-fidelity simulators or real driving conditions.

Dongyuan Wang, Ashley Wilborn, Vanessa Miller

Conference Proceedings

X-ray Analysis on the Difference in Ride Comfort Affected by Increased Number of Air Bladders in Car Seats

This study investigates the impact of increasing air bladder numbers in car seats on ride comfort through X-ray analysis. It assesses how these changes affect the driver's lumbar support, exploring the relationship between seat design and comfort. Participants, with varied demographics, were tested using seats with different air bladder counts. Utilizing X-ray imagery, the study compares spinal alignment in different sitting positions. Results showed that seats with more air bladders significantly enhanced comfort. This suggests that more air bladders in car seats can improve driver support and reduce discomfort, contributing valuable insights for automotive seat design.

Woojin Choi, Jueun Shin, Sunwoong Kim, Sohn Moonjun

Conference Proceedings

The impact of secondary in-vehicle display animations and their location on driver attention and glance behavior

This driving simulator study explores which kind and amount of non-driving-related animations can be implemented in cars’ front displays without causing significant driver distraction. While in recent years, a large amount of research has been conducted on how driving-relevant information must be displayed to capture the driver’s attention, the question on how non-driving-related animations can be conveyed in front displays without compromising the driver’s attention has rarely been addressed. However, due to the omnipresence of digital displays in present-day vehicles combined with observable efforts of vehicle manufacturers to increase the visual design appeal, the topic currently gains practical relevance. N = 53 participants were presented 16 animations that differed in stimulus salience features like fade-in time, brightness, target color, as well as internal and external movement. These animations were either displayed in the Cluster display or in the Central Infotainment Display (CID) and they were all irrelevant to the three driver tasks: To follow a lead vehicle (Car Following Task), perform a visual Detection Response Task (vDRT) and, optionally, react to a small set of driving-relevant info texts. In Test Drive 1, texts appeared in the Cluster only, whereas Test Drive 2, they appeared in both the Cluster and the CID. This was done to alter the task relevance of the two locations. Although a general effect of animations on vDRT performance could be observed across all study parts, this was with the exception of slow fading-in animations and other factors such as reduced brightness, target color, and the object size in the animation. Additionally, in Test Drive 1 a location effect could be observed: Animations displayed in the Cluster display led to a reduced vDRT performance when compared to animations that were displayed in the more distant CID. This effect disappeared when driving-relevant information texts were introduced to the CID in Test Drive 2. Taken together, visual attention was more vulnerable to animations of increased salience and to animations at lower-effort locations - an effect that can be moderated when the value of a more distant location is increased. The resulting design recommendations may be used to consider the risk of distractive features throughout the whole design process of in-car animations, reducing development costs, maximizing driving safety and providing a positive user experience.

Dennis Befelein, Christian Purucker, Frederik Schewe, Janik Dostert, Alexandra Neukum

Conference Proceedings

Perceived comfort prediction by occupant package layout and vehicle seat engineering factors

Perceived comfort is one of the most important factors in automotive engineering, but it is also a very complex and difficult to define. Consumer survey and expert evaluation is the mostly used to determine the subjective comfort level. As tech-nology advances, engineering becomes increasingly important during the design review phase.The aim of this study is to define a conceptual framework of the consumers’ per-ceived comfort, which is related to various engineering factors, and to develop a ML-model (Machine Learning model).Totally, 23 variables were determined by various objective measured data from vehicle and vehicle seat as independent variables. Each variable was defined through data conversion and calculation after measuring the physical properties and the geometric characteristics of the vehicle seat, and the characteristics of the sitting package. Totally, 11 variables were defined by various subjective evalua-tion data as dependent variables.Sedans and SUVs from various segments were included in the dataset for devel-opment of the machine learning model.Postscript.This paper is a follow-up study for my previous paper which published by AHFE2023, paper no. 326.Developing the machine learning model is almost developed, however, requires little bit more time. The estimated date of the finish is around end of this year. Current model has over 0.8 of r-square values, but we try to various methods to develop the optimal prediction model. In some cases, it is possible to use several different methods to each engineering purpose. The final result will be included in this paper.

Sunwoong Kim

Conference Proceedings

Hybrid intelligent logistics system for a recycling center

A realization of intelligent logistic system for a recycling center requires utilization of very latest information and communication technologies. Therefore, versatile technology framework and adapting data-driven solutions to optimize collection, transportation, and processing of recyclable materials is needed. The key components in building the technology framework for enabling intelligent, intelligent logistic recycling service are robust communication platform, reliable vehicle and asset tracking system and AI (Artificial Intelligent) enabled data analysis and management platform. The communication platform facilitates collaboration between stakeholders including recycling company, transportation company, waste management company and local government. Its purpose is to improve information flow and coordination between stakeholders. The vehicle and asset tracking system provides means to monitor and manage various assets and fleet of vehicles operating in the recycling area, which can be fully autonomous or driven by professional drivers. The data provided by the vehicle and asset tracking system must be acquired, analyzed and used for decision making efficiently in real time. The data analysis and management platform store all the data needed for operating intelligent logistic service of a recycling center. It utilizes existing IoT (Internet of Things) technologies and the communication platform. AI solutions are used for analyzing the collected data for further use to provide services for the users of the system. The research question is to how to design Hybrid Intelligent (HI) logistic system for recycling center in MORE industrial park that enables 24/7 autonomous recycling service for companies? The recycling center’s autonomous service is aimed for companies that have need to store larger quantities of various materials for recycling and further use in future. The key requirements from a client’s point of view are 24/7 access to recycling area, safe and secure material storage facility and efficient operations in recycling area. Safety, security and reliability of services in recycling center are particularly important when the center’s operating personnel are not present and available. This is also primary concern for the recycling center operator. The asset and vehicle tracking system must monitor and manage all vehicles in the recycling area regardless who is driving it, human or AI. Therefore, the system must consider human input and learn to manage autonomous traffic to provide support for human activities in the recycling area. The paper proposes a design solution for a smart autonomous recycling service that utilize HI logistic system.

Markus Sihvonen

Conference Proceedings

Interaction Concepts for Delivery Robots: Exploring Evaluation Criteria and Design via Two User-centered Approaches

With the introduction of automated driving technologies onto public roads, requirements for human-vehicle interfaces have changed. Yet, little is known about what constitutes effective and enjoyable user interactions. To address this issue, we explored different concepts and modalities for interaction. Three concepts (graphical user interface, voice user interface, and wristband) were developed via two user-centered design processes. The first one was a participatory design approach (i.e., [1] co-design session, [2] initial evaluation via an online survey, and [3] redesign.) The second one was a design thinking sprint (i.e., a series of workshops: [1] emphasize, [2] define, [4] ideate, [5] and prototype.)Finally, three concepts were prototyped and comparatively evaluated. For evaluation, we used the requirements identified during the development processes.The comparative evaluation highlighted that while all three interaction concepts were viable, the graphical user interface and voice user interface showed greater promise in meeting user requirements than the wristband, which scored relatively low in aesthetic appeal, efficiency, and maturity.

Vivian Lotz, Eva-maria Schomakers, Chantal Lidynia, Martina Ziefle

Conference Proceedings

Seat comfort evaluation method using X-ray : A case study in compact sedan

The aim of this research is to gather driver data to determine the comfort of a car seat by analyzing the correlation between various X-ray measurement variables and the satisfaction, comfort, and support of the seat, back, and cushion. The X-ray measurement variables include the seat angle at optimal posture, C7-SVA, Backset, the distance between Hip Joint and Head Centerline, height between Hip Joint and Head Centerline, cervical lordosis angle, thoracic kyphosis angle, and lumbar lordosis angle. The study was conducted on 17 participants using the Compact Sedan car. The results of the experiment showed that overall seat satisfaction was negatively correlated with the lumbar lordosis angle (r= -0.511, p< 0.05). The satisfaction of headrest support showed a negative correlation with the seat angle at the optimal posture (r=-0.597, p< 0.05). The comfort of the headrest support was negatively correlated with the distance between the hip joint and the head centerline (r=-0.609, p<0.01), the seat angle (r=-0.511, p< 0.05), and the lumbar lordosis angle (r=-0.502, p< 0.05). Headrest support satisfaction was negatively correlated with the distance between the Hip Joint and the head centerline (r=-0.486, p<0.05). In conclusion, the X-ray data analysis confirmed musculoskeletal variables that showed a significant correlation with seat comfort. However, this study is limited to Compact Sedan seats only, and it is expected that more meaningful data can be obtained if additional research is conducted on various class seats such as hatchbacks and SUVs in the future. Additionally, the study can include L3 of the spine, L4 of the spine, Thorax Angle, and Abdomen Angle variables in the future.

Jueun Shin, Woojin Choi, Sunwoong Kim

Conference Proceedings

Optimized Design of Road Street Furniture for Pedestrian Traffic - Smart Zebra Crossings

The evolution of pedestrian crossings, also known as zebra crossings, traces back to their initial purpose of separating people, horses, and carriages with stepping stones to their current design of striped patterns accommodating mixed traffic of cars and pedestrians. Its development history shows the process of improving tools to meet the needs of the times, underscored by the continuous updating of facilities and equipment driven by the relentless advancement of science and technology through the ages. Under severe weather conditions such as nighttime, rainy days, and smoggy days, the reduced visibility of zebra crossings increases the risk of collisions between pedestrians and motor vehicles. The author proposed the idea of light beam wall zebra crossing based on the current smart zebra croosings. Surveys from pedestrians and drivers were collected to evaluate the pros and cons of smart zebra crossings and gauge public interest in their personalized and aesthetic design.The survey results indicate that all respondents agree that illuminated zebra crossings are beneficial to both pedestrians and drivers. Most also agree that well-designed zebra crossings can enhance the pleasure of travel. However, they also express concerns that smart zebra crossings may have disadvantages such as high costs, high maintenance expenses,and potential failures that may not function properly. Based on these findings, it is crucial to select illuminated tile materials for smart zebra crossings and found ways to control cost. The author proposed a method to offset some costs by displaying advertisements on light beam walls of smart zebra crossings. Additionally, the personalized design of zebra crossings aims to provide citizens with a more aesthetically pleasing experience, enhancing their sense of safety and happiness. The comprehensive experience of smart zebra crossings attracts footfall to nearby commercial areas. Smart zebra crossings can be seen as a lever to create a City Walk-friendly urban intelligent transportation landscape that supports urban development.

Qian Shi, Yan Luo, Tao Wang

Conference Proceedings

Train Driver Visual Performance: A Parametric Survival Model of Reaction Time

The implementation of Automatic Train Operation (ATO) systems is rapidly increasing in the railway industry, driven by the potential for improved efficiency, safety, and capacity. However, one of the key challenges in implementing ATO systems is defining the functional requirements of these automated systems. One approach for deriving these functional requirements is by evaluating human performance in the driving task.This study investigates the visual performance of train drivers under different conditions using a driving simulator. 18 active train drivers participated in the experimental study. The task of the participants in the simulator study was to drive a train and respond to stationary visual stimuli in the form of cubes at irregular intervals by pressing the signal horn. The study aimed to assess reaction times to objects under three different train protection systems: PZB (punktförmige Zugbeeinflussung, intermitted train protection system), ETCS (European Train Control System level 2 with cab signalling), and driving-on-sight. The square objects varied in size (90 cm and 180 cm) and color (brown and orange), creating a diverse range of scenarios for the drivers.Survival analysis, a statistical method used to analyze time-to-event data, was employed to evaluate the drivers’ performance. In this context, the ‘event’ was defined as the driver reacting to an object, and the ‘time’ was the reaction time. This method provided a detailed understanding of the distribution of reaction times and how they were influenced by the different driving conditions. The hazard function, which describes the instantaneous rate of occurrence of the event before its actual occurrence, was used to compare reaction times across different conditions. The results of the study revealed that object size, object contrast, and train speed had a significant effect on train drivers’ reaction time. Specifically, larger and more contrasting objects were associated with faster reaction times. Stimuli were detected more quickly at higher speeds, possibly due to the verticalization of gaze at increasing speeds and the objects visually enlarging more rapidly at higher speeds. Interestingly, the differences between train protection systems yielded complex results that warrant further investigation. Additionally, the probabilities that a driver had not yet reacted to an object by a certain time were estimated. It is important to note that although the study was conducted in a sophisticated simulation environment, it does not fully represent the real conditions of driving a train. Nevertheless, the study provides valuable findings into visual perception performance of train drivers. Furthermore, it demonstrates the utility of survival analysis in railway domain, particularly for analyzing reaction time data. The findings of this study have significant implications for the railway industry, particularly in the context of deriving functional requirements of ATO implementations. Understanding how human performance is influenced by operational and environmental factors can inform the design of safer and more efficient railway operations.

Baris Cogan, Birgit Milius

Conference Proceedings

Vibration sensitivity measurement of back and buttocks for effective seat vibration warning

The study focuses on tactile sense as an additional modality for presenting information to drivers, alongside the visual displays and auditory sounds commonly used for driver assistance functions.Although many haptic warnings with built-in vibrators in the steering wheel and seats have been studied, there are few practical applications for seats, despite the steering wheel already being implemented. Vibration-based information presentation is an effective means of presenting information as it can present information solely to the driver without causing anxiety to passengers through display or sound warnings.Furthermore, as autonomous driving functions become more widespread, drivers can focus on other activities while in a hands-off state during Level 3 or higher levels. The presentation of information through tactile sense is considered highly effective when using a seat that maintains constant contact with a large area of the occupant during other activities.Many vibration warnings use eccentric motors to create vibrations, which limits the range of vibration characteristics that can be achieved. Additionally, there is insufficient knowledge regarding the optimal vibration characteristics and areas for stimulus. This study measured the vibration sensitivity of the back and buttocks in contact with the seat and investigated the vibration characteristics required for efficient warnings.Vibro-transducers were attached to the clothed human back surface of the body, and the minimum vibration output required to elicit a response was recorded for each frequency (30 to 150 Hz, in 10 Hz increments) at various sites on the back and buttocks. The resulting data was used to create a vibration sensitivity map of the back side of the body.First, in a preliminary experiment, 39 points on the back of the body from the 7th cervical vertebra to the back of the knee were comprehensively measured at 80 mm intervals for seven participants (4 males and 3 females), and the measurement points were narrowed down by examining regional differences, left-right differences, and individual differences. Finally, 22 measurement points were selected based on the skeleton and vibration sensitivity was measured. The buttocks, which have different pelvic positions inside the body, were measured in the supine and sitting positions.In the experiment, measurements were taken on a total of 14 subjects, 7 male and 7 female adults, and a vibration sensitivity map of the backside of the body was created.Based on the sensitivity maps, the effectiveness of the warning stimulus will be tested using a seat vibration warning with driving simulator.

Akinari Hirao, Akari Yoshida

Conference Proceedings

Unveiling the Complexity of Car Ride Comfort: A Holistic Model

In recent years, the automotive industry has increasingly prioritized comfort to meet rising consumer expectations for luxurious car experiences. Comfort, a subjective concept associated with well-being and relaxation, encompasses multidimensional aspects rooted in physical, psychological, and functional aspects. While existing comfort models focus mainly on seated positions and sensations like fatigue and restlessness, the car travel experience introduces complexities due to varying number of occupants, diverse anthropometrics, different safety perceptions and desired activities. This paper proposes a holistic car ride comfort model, developed from interview data collected in two empirical studies involving 48 participants evaluating comfort in cars. The holistic model categorizes influential factors into physical, psychological, and functional comfort aspects and integrates elements of the product (the car), individual, and environment, unveiling the complexity of car ride comfort.

Melina Makris, Anna-lisa Osvalder, Mikael Johansson, Jonas Borell

Conference Proceedings

Experiences of upright sleeping in a vehicle: the preferred back rest angle

In many vehicles passengers are sleeping. Groenesteijn et al.(2014) reported that on medium to long distance train trips, the second most time was spend on ‘staring or sleeping’. Bouwens et al. (2017) report that the majority of passengers sleep during a flight, while this activity has the lowest comfort score. The likelihood of resting and sleeping during a commute automated vehicle trip is also high (Wilson et al., 2022). Usually this sleeping is a nap, as Faraut et al. (2017) defined a nap as any sleep period with a duration of less than 50% of the average major sleep period of an individual. Discomfort while taking this nap might be caused by the upright sitting position. Studies by Nicholson and Stone (1987), Aeschback et al. (1994), Hayashi and Abe (2008) and Roach et al. (2018) show that the larger the recline angle of the seat ('flatter'), the better the sleep efficiency. A flat bed is preferred. However, a flat bed is often not possible due to space and economic reasons. In this study we tried to discover what back rest angle is acceptable for an upright sleep. The study was carried out using six customized chairs of which the backrest could be positioned in five different angles (110º, 120º, 130º, 140º, 150º) and an additional 180º bed was added as a reference (a horizontal stretcher). Sleeping was facilitated by for instance, a good temperature, darkness, blankets and cushions. 16 participants were asked to try to sleep six times for a duration of 90 minutes to facilitate at least one sleep cycle, each person starting in a different backrest angle and having a different order. Questions on sleep comfort and comfort in general (on a scale 0-10, 0 being no comfort and 10 extreme comfort) were asked after the sleep. The results show that overall comfort was low (below 6) for 110 and 120 degrees and it was significantly better at 130 degrees or more. The same trend was shown for the sleeping comfort. In conclusion, a conclusive statement based on sleep quality is hard to give, but in terms of comfort a backrest angle of 120 degrees or less is unacceptable for a nap. Suggesting that for a short napping situation a minimum of a 130 degree recline should be available. To improve sleep comfort in 110 and 120 degree recline; neck support, lower back and lower leg support are the main attention points.

Gerbera Vledder, Rebeca Sabater Compomanes, Utkarsh Singh, Halil Kılıç, Maxim Smulders, Yu Song, Peter Vink

Conference Proceedings

Automation in Railway: How tasks and roles of operational staff change

Tasks of railway operational staff are changing with increasing digitalization and automation of the railway system. Even lower grades of automation like Grade of Automation 2 (GoA2) result in a decrease of active tasks and the operators having to predominantly monitor the technical systems. Effects of the introduction of higher Grades of Automation like GoA3 and 4 on tasks and roles of operational staff are currently examined in our research. In both GoA3 and 4, the train drives automatically and there are no train drivers in the cabin anymore. Instead, the new role of remote train operators is introduced. Remote train operators can drive the train remotely in case of disruption, for example from a control room. In GoA4, there is no operational staff on board, while in GoA3, a train attendant is still on board and can support in case of disruption. An interaction between staff on the train and remote train operators could also be possible.In the present paper, we will introduce different research projects at the Institute of Transportation Systems of the German Aerospace Center (DLR). These projects deal with research questions like: Which tasks of railway operational staff can be automated and which remain with the human? What could be a task distribution between automation and human that optimally utilizes the strengths of both? Who is going to carry out the remaining human tasks? Which new roles for operational staff could emerge from this task distribution? How could workflows within these new roles look like? What interaction and communication processes are necessary for a smooth operational procedure of automated railway? Current results will be presented.

Anja Naumann, Birte Thomas-friedrich

Conference Proceedings

The vehicle as an immersive device to enhance the mental health to a peak state

As a result of technological progress, environmental aspects and social change, the automotive industry is undergoing a radical transformation. The focus is no longer on the product "vehicle" but much more on the mobility service itself and the users individual experience and well-being during travel time. In that field of innovation, the study deals with a explorative investigation of using the travel time for a improvement of the mental health of the passenger. The vision is to integrate breathwork relaxation in combination with a human centric lighting scenario as an immersive service within luxury ride-hailing vehicles to enhance the mental health during automated rides and utilizing the time spent in cars for personal pleasure. To enable a user-centered and experimental approach, a test vehicle from the non-profit company bq.Labs was equipped with the bq breath work app and a spezialized LED-based lighting screen that was developed by Fraunhofer. The effects were tested on randomly selected and voluntary users in a guerrilla testing at three different locations in San Diego. The tests explored user acceptance of the innovative technologies by combining surveys, vital data collection, qualitative interviews and observations. Initial data analysis provides insights into the feasibility and potential effects on well-being and user perception. The study illustrates those innovations in the field of mobility, involve systemic dependencies and considerations beyond technology, encompassing social and psychological dimensions. It underscores that successful innovations require a holistic, user-centered approach that considers technological, social, and psychological dimensions. The findings lay the groundwork for future research and development of innovation strategies in the evolving field of mobility and personalized strength.

Franziska Braun, Sebastian Stegmüller, David Agola, Carolin Hamel, Paul Gerlach, Fabian Edel

Conference Proceedings

The human element in data driven decision making for winter navigation

With the availability of big maritime data and advancements of the computational techniques, such as machine learning and AI, automation of navigational decision-making in ships is on the rise. For low risk and more frequently observed cases, such as local vessels operating in calm sea, abundant data facilitates straightforward automation. The traditional data driven modeling (including black-box models) and associated validation techniques suffice the automation process of these cases as human intervention is rarely needed. However, for high-risk and infrequent scenarios, like winter navigation, data may be scarce, sparse, or imbalanced. Black-box data-driven models and associated validation techniques prove insufficient in these cases, as the expectation is for human to jump in and take control over when needed. This paper explores the role of the human element in various stages of data driven decision-making for winter navigation, encompassing the establishment of a multipurpose winter navigation database, model development, and validation. To illustrate, a case study on ice-breaker assistance operations will be presented.

Mashrura Musharraf, Cong Liu

Conference Proceedings

Assessment of resilience in a maritime autonomous transport system

Resilience attributes are turned upside down when introducing autonomous maritime transport systems, as technology replaces or assists human functions. We enter an unknown world where we need to rely on autonomous functions and the collaboration between humans and technology. Since less human interaction might cause challenges and effects not yet uncovered, Kaber (2018)[1] discussed levels of autonomy in the context of human automation interaction (HAI). The paper particularly looks at the use of levels of autonomy as taxonomies to structure and improve analysis of human performance, workload, but also situational awareness as well as some of the problems that this may cause. The introduction of increasing automation changes the way human and machine interact in many ways. As such, to ensure resilience in autonomous transport systems, these human and machine interaction challenges must be addressed and systemized, and in this paper the different awareness categories humans, technology and external (Fjørtoft, K.E., 2021), are revisited and linked to resilience. Also, as an extension on how to utilize integrated planning for autonomous transport systems (IPA), as presented by Fjørtoft, et al. (2023), this paper further details emerging issues related to human and machine interface by presenting a framework for how to secure resilience during the design, plan and follow up autonomous ship operations. In other words, the ability to assess and ensure resilience when planning operations in autonomous maritime transport system, while accounting for the interaction between humans and technology. This is of particular relevance due to the likelihood of vessels sailing with different degrees of autonomy, depending on the ongoing operation and its surroundings. Described as operational envelopes in "Towards approval of autonomous ship systems by their operational envelope" (Rødseth 2021), the overall operation must be broken down into sub-operations such as sailing in open seas, berthing, cargo loading/unloading (crane operation), etc.The framework is exemplified through a case study, by combining research results from the Norwegian project MARMAN and EU projects like AUTOSHIP and AEGIS.

Odd Erik Mørkrid, Kay Fjørtoft, Marianne Hagaseth, Even Holte

Conference Proceedings

Towards a Vision of Bridge Zero – Participatory Design of Automated Maritime Solutions

In recent years, Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS), i.e., ships which can operate, to a varying degree, independently of human involvement, have raised special interest in the maritime industry. Despite this, the development of MASS is still much under way, due to various challenges in all levels of maritime activity, including, e.g., equipment failure, human error, and defective interaction with the physical environment (Chang, Kontovas, Yu, Yang, 2021). We have explored autonomous ship technologies and developed concepts for MASS in a nationally funded research project (Business Finland, Enablers and Concepts for Automated Maritime Solutions - ECAMARIS). A central operational concept investigated in the project is the so-called Bridge Zero (B0), defined as a conditionally and periodically uncrewed bridge. According to the starting point in ECAMARIS for a B0 concept, the bridge can be left completely unmanned and unattended for a defined period in open sea conditions, thus freeing the bridge crew, e.g., for other duties or rest. A B0 workshop was organized among ECAMARIS project participants to collect perspectives and conceptions about possibilities and challenges for B0. The workshop participants consisted of a multidisciplinary group, including representatives both from maritime industry and academic organizations. The total number of participants was 11. The workshop comprised four main exercises: 1) warm-up (generating the worst possible solution for B0), 2) B0 ideation (specifying the endpoint goal “operating an uncrewed bridge under defined conditions” and identifying functions that must be performed to satisfy the goal), 3) barrier identification, and 4) closing discussion.Participants were divided into three heterogeneous groups that worked through the exercises. Each group documented their conceptions on a large sheet of paper. The sheets and the audio-recorded wrap-up discussion constitutes the output of the B0 workshop. Workshop results were analyzed by categorizing responses and identifying main themes and sub-themes. Overall, there was general agreement that improved safety is the key driver for the development of B0. The minimum requirement is that the autonomous system is capable of executing the voyage plan of the ship and achieve and maintain a safe navigational watch at the same level of safety as a human Officer of the Watch (OOW). To that aim, it is important that the system has, in a sense, an understanding of its capabilities and limitations with relation to task requirements (McDermott et al., 2018) to be able in good time to alert the bridge personnel to take control in demanding conditions. Several sociotechnical, economic, and regulatory barriers and constraints delaying the fast implementation of B0 were identified in the workshop. Some strategies for how to overcome them were also proposed and explored.REFERENCESChang, C. H., Kontovas, C., Yu, Q., & Yang, Z. (2021). Risk assessment of the operations of maritime autonomous surface ships. Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 207, 107324.McDermott, P., Dominguez, C., Kasdaglis, N., Ryan, M., Trahan, I., & Nelson, A. (2018). Human-machine teaming systems engineering guide. MITRE CORP BEDFORD MA BEDFORD United States.

Hanna Koskinen, Jari Laarni, Marja Liinasuo, Antti Hynninen, Douglas Owen, Victor Bolbot, Meriam Chaal

Conference Proceedings

A mixed-method approach for assessing passengers’ perspectives of autonomous urban ferries

Autonomous urban ferries may become a new solution for future urban public transport. The perception of users and their attitudes plays a vital role in the acceptance and use of autonomous technologies. In this method article, we present a mixed-method approach to assess users’ perspectives on autonomous urban ferries. The method is based on citizen engagement and consists of four sessions with a broad range of representative public transport users. The sessions are (1) information and table discussions, (2) an immersive virtual mixed-reality simulation of a ferry trip in a full-scale ferry mock-up, (3) a ferry trip onboard a working autonomous prototype ferry, and (4) reflective table discussions. The method collects rich and multidimensional data which can be used to inform researchers and practitioners on how to study passengers’ perspectives on public autonomous transport solutions.

Leander Pantelatos, Ole Andreas Alsos, Mina Saghafian, Øyvind Smogeli, Asun Lera Stclair

Conference Proceedings

Assisting Human-centred Ship Bridge Design through Virtual Reality

The maritime industry is experiencing rapid evolution, fueled by technological advancements that offer unprecedented opportunities for enhancing navigation performances. Virtual Reality (VR), renowned for its immersive and interactive capabilities, has successfully penetrated various domains. Integrating VR into ship bridge design promises to redefine design capabilities by facilitating interactive scenarios, engaging end-users and stakeholders, and streamlining both design production and evaluation processes. This paper presents an innovative approach to leverage VR technology as a transformative tool in the human-centered ship bridge design process. The focus is on enhancing performances during maritime navigation. The proposed methodology underscores the pivotal roles of prototypes and scenarios in producing and evaluating design concepts. It elucidates which design phases and activities in ship bridge design procedure are suitable for utilizing VR prototypes and scenarios, contributing to a more informed and participatory design process.Despite advancements in navigation equipment and automated aids, human errors persist as significant contributors to maritime accidents (Grech, 2008). Acknowledging this, the necessity is to address latent risks and underlying problems associated with human errors (Wróbel, 2021). As Norman (2019) proposed, shifting from technology-centered design to human-centered design (HCD), will benefit the complex social-technical system of ship bridge, to to upgrade the human machine interaction (HMI) with minimum cognitive load and optimal situation awareness (SA).VR technology, recognized for its effectiveness in maritime crew training, offers experiential learning through well-designed simulation tasks (Stevens and Kincaid, 2015). The "sense of being there" in virtual environments enhances spatial understanding, providing navigators with contextual and scenario-based learning experiences (Mallam and Nazir, 2021). Beyond training, the paper advocates for leveraging VR in ship bridge domain for iterative design processes and usability tests, ensuring a friendly and intuitive user experience (UX).VR is confirmed as a novel mode of visualisation and interaction to support design reviews (Wolfartsberger, 2019). Representative prototypes were adopted in usability testing within the cycled design process to help designers identifying problems and seeking correction. By engaging with end-users, those model representations (physical & digital, 2D & 3D, with & without context) could elicit useful feedback on design parmeters basing on partipated users’ experiential refelctions, which increase designers’ understandings of user needs, working contexts, and existing design issues, and inpired innovative and well-supported design solutions (Osterman, Berlin, and Bligard, 2016). In most cases, the physical prototype’s production are time-consuming and expensive. Additionally, it always requires more time and effort for remaking to adapt design changes. VR can make up for the deficiency of physical prototypes forementioned. Besides, it create realistic environment and scenarios for participants to engage and interact with. In summary, VR enables cost benefits and agility in the design and development process. Recently, a web-based collabrative platform launched for designing ,sharing, and reviewing 3D models (Bezel, 2022), which may help design and develop team to accelarte working efficiency on VR environment establishment. Moreover, VR-based evaluation approach can simulate a dynamic and immersive context which allows review design solutions both by designers and participated users during an intuitive interaction process. The use of VR has been adopted in automobile sector to execute usability testing with virtual prototypes, dynamic simulations, and component aesthetic evaluations (Freitas et al., 2020). The domain of ship bridge should also orchestrate with VR during the iterative design process for enhanced performances of maritime navigation. In this complex and safety-critical realm, ensuring the optimal SA for navigators is paramount. VR has potentials to integrate the SA assessing measurements into the scenarios intuitively to avoid bias results caused by interventions.In summary, this paper proposes a methodology for applying VR techniques in human-centered ship bridge design. It demonstrates periodical outcomes of developed VR prototypes and scenarios, aiming to minimize cognitive workload and optimize situational awareness in maritime navigation. The findings are expected to benefit ship bridge designers and have broader implications for creating intuitive HMIs in contemporary industries.

Bingyu Mu, Fang Bin Guo, Xiaohui Chu

Conference Proceedings

Enhancing Scenario Design in Maritime Education and Training

Within maritime education and training, the value of simulator-based training has long been recognized. Simulation is a powerful tool in providing students with immersive and experiential opportunities in practicing complex professional tasks in a controlled environment. In an industry where mistakes can have catastrophic consequences, the importance of providing students with an education which focuses on good seamanship, rather than simply training individual skills, is evident, with strong emphasis on training competencies such as communication, collaboration, and decision-making. Much focus in existing literature is placed upon factors such as the fidelity of the simulator and the role of the instructor during the simulation, for example, but very little has been published around the design of the scenario exercises themselves. This gap in understanding what constitutes a well-designed scenario, and the process involved in effective scenario design is addressed by this study. Semi-structured interviews have been conducted with experienced instructors from a range of institutions across Sweden, Norway, Finland, and the Netherlands. The goal of the interviews was to uncover valuable insights into the process of designing and developing scenario exercises, focusing on the key considerations that contribute to the success of such training programs. While the initial aim of the study was to develop a systematic approach to scenario design, the findings also revealed some key concerns that provide more in-depth insight into the complexity of good scenario design. Instructors emphasize the need for scenario exercises that not only mimic real-world situations, but also align with specific educational objectives. This highlights the importance of designing scenarios that accommodate the varying levels of knowledge and experience found in a group of students. The scenarios must be both concrete enough to ensure the objectives are met, and flexible enough that the instructor can cater to these individual student needs. In addition to the specific skills being trained, the scenario must be designed in a way which further embeds the non-technical skills, such as communication, teamwork, and reflexivity, central to good seamanship. Through increasing the understanding of effective scenario design, this study aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on simulator-based maritime education and training. The use of a recognized instructional design model, developed for training complex tasks, is recommended as complementing the existing approach taken by simulator instructors, formalizing their current practice, and providing a much-needed resource in the form of a systematic approach that captures the nuances of the instructors’ experience.

Susan Harrington

Conference Proceedings

Multi-modal data analysis for enhanced nautical skill development

This paper explores the innovative application of multi-modal data analysis for nautical skill development process. By examining the potential of integrating diverse data sources e.g., ship motion, visual, auditory and sensor data, the possibility of obtaining performance insights could be enhanced, and the decision-making processes in complex navigational environments can be made more transparent. The findings from this systematic literature review revealed a significant gap in the current body of knowledge concerning the analysis of multi-modal data in maritime domain. Through a case study on a sailing route involving navigation under a bridge and interactions with two other vessels, we evaluated the potential of a multi-modal data analysis approach to enhance future nautical training. This work aims to catalyse system development and prompt future research endeavours that align with the intersection of multi-modal data analysis and nautical skill advancement.

Hui Xue, Tae-eun Kim

Conference Proceedings