Advances in Human Aspects of Transportation: Part I

AHFE International

Accelerating Open Access Science in Human Factors Engineering and Human-Centered Computing

Advances in Human Aspects of Transportation: Part I

book-cover

Editors: Neville Stanton, Steven Landry, Giuseppe Di Bucchianico, Andrea Vallicelli

Topics: Transportation Engineering

Publication Date: 2021

ISBN: 978-1-4951-2097-8

DOI: 10.54941/ahfe100602

Articles

Extracting Cultural Factors from Helicopter Accident Reports Using Content Analysis

Accident reports from the United Kingdom and Nigerian civilian helicopter industry were compared in order to explore the wider socio-cultural factors and their impact on human error. These two countries share many common features of helicopter operations, including a prominent offshore oil industry, but they differ in terms of the cultural context these operations take place within. Content analysis was carried out in order to explore the cultural variables influencing human error leading to accidents. Results show Nigeria accident reports revealed more of the high cultural contextual differences themes (cultural traits associated with Third World or traditional countries) with patches of low cultural differences (cultural traits associated with Western countries), while the United Kingdom accident reports revealed more of the low cultural contextual differences themes, but surprisingly higher patches of the high cultural differences. Analysis of these results enhances the understanding of the relationship between culture, human actions and various system parts contributing to unsafe acts leading to helicopter accidents. Cultural factors are prominent in the sampled accident reports, yet culture is currently not well represented in accident analysis methods. This is a significant omission. This paper demonstrates that culture plays a significant role in helicopter accidents, and that these factors can be extracted for real life scenarios.

Helen Omole, Guy Walker, Gina Netto

Conference Proceedings

A Qualitative Exploration of Critical Incidents: Expanding Neisser’s Perceptual Cycle Model

The Perceptual Cycle Model (PCM) presents a process-orientated approach to understanding decision making by exploring the interaction between a person’s cognitive schema, the actions they undertake and information available in the world. This paper presents the work undertaken to refine and subcategorize the three elements of the PCM; schema, action and world, to gain a more detailed understanding of the aeronautical decision making process. Critical decision Method interviews were conducted with twenty rotary wing pilots to generate a set of critical incidents. These incidents were qualitatively analyzed using a coding scheme generated from the PCM and then the constant comparison technique was employed to generate the refined PCM coding scheme. The final PCM coding scheme contained 7 ‘schema types’, 14 ‘action types’ and 12 ‘world types’. Three critical incident case studies are presented to demonstrate the insights gained from using the refined coding scheme. Potential applications and plans for future research are discussed.

Katherine L. Plant, Neville A. Stanton

Conference Proceedings

Human Factors Engineering at the Transportation Security Administration

The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) has three engineering psychologists within the Office of Security Capabilities (OSC) who address the human element for the Agency. While many activities and programs cannot be elaborated upon due to security restrictions, a few human factors activities will be reviewed. The human factors team is tasked with writing and reviewing acquisition documents, as well as participating in acquisition milestones that span the Acquisition Lifecycle Framework. The team also works to improve operational efficiency, training effectiveness and data mining efforts by examining how human factors and interactions can be optimized for various processes and procedures. The two primary customers are the Checkpoint Technology and Checked Baggage Technology Programs.The Office has several ongoing research efforts with a number of different performers to investigate a range of human-centered issues. For example, through the Risk-Based Security Workforce Transformation Group, hypotheses were presented regarding the specialization of Officers at the checkpoint: image analysis, passenger interface, and effective interaction. Industrial/Organizational psychologists match job task analysis competencies with batteries of assessments to test for attitudes, attributes and aptitudes that would be predictive of these competencies on the job. Additional human-centered efforts will be discussed throughout this paper.

Bonnie Kudrick, Fran Greene

Conference Proceedings

Investigating Time Pressure for the Empirical Risk Analysis of Socio-Technical Systems in ATM

Current practices of risk analysis of novel socio-technical systems rely on the subjective judgment of experts. With a view on the complex interactions between human operators and the environment in ATM, a method is needed for gaining empiric evidence directly from operations. Risk analysis that bases on Human-In-The-Loop-Simulations offer a promising approach by providing an environment in which the novel system can be applied safely. An inherent disadvantage is the effort needed to cope with the strict safety targets in ATM, e.g. 1.88E-8 accidents per operating hour in which safety metrics are subject to the statistic problem of Right Censoring. This paper presents our novel concept to modify conditions of the simulation for gaining a calibrated acceleration effect by which the probability of safety metrics can be estimated from a shorter experimental period. This is motivated by the methodologies of Accelerated Life Testing, in which the Mean-Time-To-Failure of products is forwarded into the experimental period by applying calibrated steps of stress-load. We developed an experimental design that applies a procedure for the induction of a calibrated time-pressure for the stimulation of human error. The results of the proof-of-concept-study show controllable stress-reactions of the test persons.

Lothar Meyer a, Katja Gaunitz b, Hartmut Fricke a

Conference Proceedings

Biodynamic Adverse Rotorcraft-Pilot Coupling

This work discusses the dependence of helicopter aeroelastic stability on the pilot's biodynamic feedthrough. Two rotorcraft specific problems are presented. The modeling approach used in the investigation is briefly described, along with the experimental setup used for pilot biodynamic feedthrough characterization and for closed-loop problem investigation is described. The need to perform closed-loop experiments is discussed.

Giuseppe Quaranta, Pierangelo Masarati, Massimilano Lanz, Marco Marforio, Vincenzo Muscarelloa

Conference Proceedings

Aviation Safety: An Initial Exploration of the Feasibility of Using Language Engineering Technologies for Reducing Pilot-Air Traffic Control Miscommunications

This paper describes some initial investigations into the possibilities of using state-of-the-art language engineering technologies to minimise miscommunications between pilots and controllers. Despite considerable efforts to remedy this situation by providing solutions that focus almost exclusively on new proposals for making air traffic control (ATC) messages clearer and easier to understand and on better ATC communication training strategies, communication issues persist. In order to demonstrate this, we discuss an aircraft accident and incident in which communication problems between pilots and ATC have been identified as contributory factors. The types of miscommunication are described in their situational and operational contexts. It is then argued that employing automatic speech recognition (ASR), machine translation (MT) and terminology extraction (TE) technologies would have the potential to reduce such miscommunications and hence might have contributed to preventing the accident and incident. This paper presents a snapshot of our initial work as well as thoughts on its future development, including a description of how an ASR-MT-TE communication system as an addition to voice and data link communications might be designed and implemented into flight decks and ATC workstations and how this system may impact on mental workload, situation awareness, and attention allocation of pilots and controllers.

Bettina Bajaj a, Arnab Majumdar b

Conference Proceedings

Airspace Infringements in European Airspace

Airspace infringements (AIs), which can be defined as unauthorised entry of an aircraft in controlled airspace, are one of the primary concerns of the general aviation (GA) in Europe. Such incidents can significantly reduce the distance between different types of air traffic, increasing the risk of a catastrophic mid-air collision. Key issues of AIs in GA were identified in previous studies of EUROCONTROL; however, there are concerns about the efficacy of the analysis of incident reports of AIs. Therefore, this paper proposes a robust safety analysis methodology for AIs involving GA in Europe. It initially reviews the studies conducted by EUROCONTROL in relation to the AIs and then it describes the proposed methodology to find contributory factors of AIs from incident reports. Relationships between these factors are investigated using contingency tables and log linear models and these factors are ranked regarding their frequency of occurrence. Finally, two severity models are developed using the contributory factors. For the purpose of the study high quality data were provided from the Norwegian Air Navigation Service Provider Avinor (ANSP) for the period 2008-2012. The results indicate that the ANSP should focus on GA pilots, flying in the springtime in southern Norwegian airspace to ensure appropriate navigation and communication skills.

Elena Psyllou, Arnab Majumdar, Washington Y. Ochieng

Conference Proceedings

Health Related Factors in Traffic Accident Investigation

The aim of the study is to evaluate road traffic accident analyses reports as a means to improve the system of medical driver examinations. Qualitative analyses was made of accident reports from the Norwegian Public Roads Administration region East and South throughout 2008 and 2009. Only 23 of 235 reports contained information on driver health. Many different diagnoses were represented. Intoxication was a major contributor to accidents. Straight-ahead accidents is discussed as a field of further investigations. In conclusion, the accident analyses reports are not a good source of information on drivers’ health. The system needs wider authorities and mandate to be an effective contribution to public health work in Norway.

Rune Rimstad, Arne Lindstad

Conference Proceedings

Flight Deck Crew Experiences Flying Profile Descents During Metering Operations

NASA’s Air Traffic Management Technology Demonstration #1 Project has a goal of improving airport capacity by developing and testing ground and flight deck tools for the terminal airspace. The Controller Managed Spacing (CMS) suite of tools has been developed to maintain high traffic density for aircraft on optimal profile descents on area navigation routes. Several studies have examined the controllers’ interaction with CMS, but there has only been one study that explored the impact of this toolset on pilots. This human-in-the-loop simulation is the second to focus on the impact of CMS on the flight deck. Twelve Boeing 737-800 qualified flight crews flew a glass cockpit simulator with the flight management system and flight dynamics of a B737-800 aircraft. Crews flew four scenarios in the Phoenix Terminal Airspace that included clearances to descend on a profile, which was adjusted almost exclusively with speed changes. Two variables were manipulated: speed changes and ATC phraseology. Workload and questionnaire data indicate that scenarios with clearance speeds faster than the route restrictions were more challenging. The phraseology of the speed clearances had an impact upon pilot workload and the efficiency of the profile descent, as determined by the number and duration of flight level-offs. Finally, the time variation to fly the descent illustrated the potential for disrupting ground scheduling tools in the terminal area.

Lynne Martin, Shivanjli Sharma, John Kaneshige, Sandy Lozito

Conference Proceedings

Understanding the Human Factors Limitations of Automated Conflict Resolution through Air Traffic Controller Solicitation

Automated conflict resolution is one of the most mature ideas available in the attempt to meet the high capacity air traffic demand expectations of NextGen. However, automated conflict resolution algorithms that are mathematically optimal may not be globally optimal when human factors dimensions are considered. In order to better understand the limitations of conflict resolution algorithms from a human factors dimension, air traffic control from Southern California TRACON are interviewed about current operations and potential future operations with automated conflict resolution. The focus of these interviews are twofold. The first focus is on understanding the tacit knowledge required for operations in the presence of hazardous weather conditions, a time when controller workload demands are particularly exacerbated. The second focus is to understand situations where mathematically optimal automated conflict resolution solutions may not be globally optimal from a human factors perspective. The contribution of this work is a summarization of human factors points of consideration for future design of air traffic control operations and automated conflict resolutions.

Chittayong Surakitbanharn a, Arik-Quang Dao b, Steven Landry a, Nobuaki Minato c

Conference Proceedings

System Modeling to Identify Agent Functions in Complex Human-Integrated Systems: An Application to Air Transportation

A general method for identifying function allocation in human-integrated systems is discussed and applied to the conflict detection and resolution function in air traffic control. The method involves creating a top-down, hybrid state model, where either human or automated agents must perform the functions of detecting the current system state, controlling the current system state, detecting the minimum time available for controlling the current system state, and controlling the minimum time available for controlling the current system state. These functions are considered necessary and sufficient. Allocation of the functions between human and automation can then be made based on the relative abilities of the humans and automation with respect to system performance and system safety.

Steven J. Landry

Conference Proceedings

How Pilots Assess Their Non-Technical Performance – A Flight Simulator Study

Within a full flight simulator study which aims to quantify the appropriateness of checklists and procedures in abnormal situations (Haslbeck, Gontar, & Schubert, 2014), 60 randomly chosen crews of commercial pilots (Airbus A320 and A340) flew a challenging flight-simulator scenario. Workload as well as time pressure constantly increased throughout the scenario. Crew performance and especially different aspects of Crew Resource Management (CRM) were subsequently rated by both pilots, who were asked to assess themselves and the other crewmember regarding their CRM skills. To avoid direct interaction during this assessment pilots were separated after the simulator flight. This approach allowed a comparison between pilots’ self and peer-rating of their CRM-skills in relation to their crew position and the specific CRM aspect being assessed; a comparable study was not found in literature. The results indicate that cognitive skills are rated to be less positive than social skills. Furthermore, pilots seem to rate their colleague to perform better than themselves regarding all skills. The study showed that different response sets are of concern when assessing own and colleagues’ skills regarding CRM. These findings can be incorporated in pilots’ training as well as in further research.

Patrick Gontar, Hans-Juergen Hoermann, Juergen Deischl, Andreas Haslbeck

Conference Proceedings

The Visual Pleasantness in Yacht Design: Natural Lighting, View and Interior Colors

The quality of the environment is closely related to the control and the availability of natural lighting and possible views. In the field of yachting, however, the design solution of the hulls and the environments often makes this relations especially critical the availability of natural light and views inside the boat. Anyway, the demands of representation and sociality required, needs the introduction of new systems of windows, terraces and new layouts, to relate the interior of the boats with the deck, attributing new meanings within the social idea of “going into the sea". This is how the small portholes, with the original function of air environments, aspire to become large openings for dialogue with the sky and sea. However, the unstable horizon of the boat, and the dynamic changing nature of views and natural lighting, generate very difficult conditions about the control of the factors which can help to determine the good size of the domestic interiors and their relationship with the environment. The paper presents the results of a research on the topic of visual pleasantness in yachting, conducted at the Department of Architecture, University "G. D'Annunzio "of Chieti-Pescara (Italy). The research has developed a system of guidelines for the aware-design of the openings to the outside in the nautical living spaces, taking into account the constraints imposed by the marine environment, activities and postures of users, as well as natural lighting and views, according with the knowledge that the control of these factors contribute to the overall quality of the project.

Massimo Di Nicolantonio, Giuseppe Di Bucchianico e Sefania Camplone

Conference Proceedings

Assessing the Fitness of Information Supply and Demand during User Interface Design

User interface design of nowadays safety-critical human-machine systems has a significant impact on human operator situation awareness (SA). SA is composed of three levels including the perception (level 1), comprehension (level 2) and projection (level 3) of information. A significant part of accidents can be attributed to level 1 error. This means that human operators have problems to satisfy their information demand with supplied information during task performance. While thoroughly checking user interface designs for information gaps is a standard in professional system design it is a time consuming and error prone process. In this paper we introduce an information gap model, which allows investigation of inconsistencies between information supply and demand. We present a method to detect information gaps and assess the fitness between information supply and demand. The method can be executed semi-automatically. We show the method’s implementation into an integrated system modelling environment and demonstrate the application with an autopilot component in a course change task on a ship bridge. We performed an expert evaluation with maritime system engineers and a human factors ergonomist to estimate the applicability, benefits and shortcomings of the method. Overall, the evaluation results are promising and warrant further research of the method.

Christian Denker, Florian Fortmann, Marie Christin Ostendorp, Axel Hahn

Conference Proceedings

Classic Yacht Redesign and Restoration:Ergonomic and Operational Aspects

The rebuilding and restoration of historical yachts have developed significantly over the past few years only, and there is ongoing discussion addressing issues in this respect. To understand the need for new scientific rigor in this field and turn largely self referential interventions into a discipline is a challenge relevant to academic research, organizational entities and regulatory agencies, both governmental and nongovernmental, in Italy and in Europe. There is a multiplicity of aspects that are central to the renovation of historical craft, including primarily ergonomics as key to the design of how to operate boats as ‘places to live and voyage in’, and technology and instrumentation as fundamental elements of navigation systems, additional to standards issued by classification societies. The restoration of classic yachts with a historical and cultural value must correctly consider all ergonomic, functional and technological aspects in reference to both conservational issues and the need to upgrade existing designs to ensure that comfort and navigational safety standards are met. A critical approach that helps find the right compromise under such constraints that are often antithetical and conflicting is central to this research.

Maria Carola Morozzo della Rocca

Conference Proceedings

Human Factors in the Design of Naval Vessels

Ergonomic studies play a particularly important role in the design of naval vessels. Key specializations, including physical, perceptual and organizational ergonomics, apply to navy ship spaces. The contributions of various disciplines to the definition of naval vessels are analyzed and tested in an ergonomic perspective to continuously seek solutions that enable increased efficiency while maintaining safety and comfort. Ergonomics is a science in a continuing evolution. It analyzes social changes and the new expectations that are generated, to meet them at both civilian and military level.

Mario Ivan Zignego

Conference Proceedings

Chemical Hazard in FRP Pleasure boats’ Manufacturing

The work aims to discuss measures to reduce risks associated with the workers’ exposure to harmful chemical agents in FRP manufacturing processes. Data on workers’ exposure were collected directly on the site plant of a few manufacturers of fiberglass pleasure boats and other FRP components. Work focuses on various stages of progressive study: I) study of the molding manufacturing process, workplace, structures, tools, materials and plants in the different companies; II) statistical study of the use of Personal Protective Equipment; III) environmental and personal sampling campaign. The study phase I is preliminary to the following. It allowed to identify, for each operators category, the risk factors to which each category is most exposed. Styrene and other VOCs are the main chemical risk factor on which attention has been paid for resins and gelcoat workers. The phase study II about the use of PPE leads to define evolution models in the use of PPE in relationship with room temperature and referring to Behaviour-Based Safety techniques to increase the percentage of use of PPE. The phase study III leads to define what the critical exposure moments are for workers, specially the processes when resin or gelcoat are sprayed. From this stage, intervention proposals arise measured to reduce risks.

Roberto Frassine(), Claudio Fusaro(), Andrea Ratti()

Conference Proceedings

Voice and Text Messaging in Ship Communication

Misunderstandings in voice radio communication have been identified as a root cause of accidents at sea. One reason is language problems in a multi ethnic industry. Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) was developed by the IMO to mitigate this problem, but studies show it is not commonly used. Difficulties to pronounce and understand English spoken by different nationalities adds to the problem. Maybe text messaging could be useful in non-time critical marine communication? This paper presents a study where VHF voice versus text messages in a land-based deep sea pilotage scenario was compared. The finding was that text based messages worked well and that there was a lower risk of misinterpreting the information.

Thomas Porathe, Peter Eklund, Henrik Goransson

Conference Proceedings

Using Eye-Tracking Data and Mouse Cursor Location To Examine Visual Alerting in a Multi-Display Environment

A study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of visual alerting during a task that required full attention and that used multiple displays. Alert detection time was collected, and eye-tracking data was recorded to determine where participants were looking, particularly when an alert appeared. Results showed that a full border around the display was detected faster than a short bar at the top of the display. This finding is in contrast to previous work in our lab, where the bar alert has always been superior for detection. Previous findings had inferred that the bar alert can be included in a spotlight of attention created during the task. The new findings suggest that the spotlight was expanded in the current experiment as a consequence of limitations in head movement imposed by wearing the eye-tracking equipment. As a result the bar was not captured and detection time was slower. The eye-tracking data was also used to validate mouse cursor location as a reasonable indication of where eyes are looking. The data showed a relatively strong correlation between eye and cursor and indicated that for the task used the cursor is a suitable tool for collecting data on where an individual is looking.

Jacquelyn Crebolder, Joshua Salmon

Conference Proceedings

Concept for the Integration of Information Received Via Communication Equipment with Onboard Navigational Systems

This paper describes project work supported by the German Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development (BMVBS) to perform an in-depth evaluation of the transfer and presentation of information received via communication equipment on onboard navigational displays. The goal was to identify safety-relevant information items and then map the flow of these items (in current operations and into the foreseeable future) when received via communication systems and integrated into navigational systems, identifying the optimal workflow, display and format for presentation. This paper will focus on the investigations and field studies conducted to investigate the requirements for integration and presentation of this information on onboard navigational systems. The results describe an outline and concept for managing and integrating communication information based on the Integrated Navigation System (INS) concept, including the classification and prioritization of safety-relevant information objects; and the definition of the task and information-related design requirements for integration, presentation, and usage of the prioritized information items onboard. Also included is a concept for a novel human machine interface (HMI) for message/information handling. Project tasks were conducted with special reference to the modular concept of an Integrated Navigation System and developments within e-Navigation.

Eric Holder, Florian Motz, Himeh Horoufchin, Michael Baldauf

Conference Proceedings

The Impact of Motion Induced Interruptions on Cognitive Performance

This paper takes a preliminary look at the direct effects of Motion Induced Interruptions (MIIs) on cognitive perfor-mance. Understanding the direct and indirect effects of motion on cognitive performance is becoming increasingly important as crewing limitations and job requirements increase operator workload. In addition, we explored the suitability of mobile tablet technology in motion environments. To do this, participants performed a data logging task using a tablet and traditional pen/paper while experiencing ship motion. MIIs occurred in sea states 4 and 5 on the Beaufort Scale. MIIs had an impact on the number of data transcriptions, but not the accuracy of data transcriptions. Performance accuracy and number of transcriptions were lower when participants used the tablet. The results of this experiment indicate that MIIs should be considered as a form of task distraction that results in increased time on task. As mobile technologies allow for more operator mobility MIIs are likely to become a larger issue. Future research will continue to investigate the impact of MIIs and motion on cognitive task performance. Answering these questions will allow us to offer mitigation strategies with potential implications on operator technology interaction, crewing and operator guidelines.

A. Huntera, N. Bourgeoisb, R. Langloisb

Conference Proceedings

On Common Ground at Sea: The Proactive Negotiation for Channel Navigation

The Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) provides support to marine traffic in congested waters to ensure safe and smooth vessel movement in the waters under its purview. The VTS operators monitor the traffic with the decision support system at hand and talk to the ships on the Very High Frequency (VHF) radio. Safe channel navigation is proactively achieved by interaction and communication on the radio. Thus traffic management within the VTS domain is a complex joint activity, in which diverse stakeholders (bridge teams, VTS operators, pilots etc.) adopt one or more available communicative roles within technologically-mediated interactions to achieve safe and fluent traffic movement. This paper argues that the communicative achievement of channel navigation is a complex joint activity requiring the building up and active sustenance of common ground to promote teamwork and contribute to safe and efficient vessel movements. Monitoring common ground is integral to monitoring oceangoing traffic. This paper draws upon data from the audio recordings of the working channel of the VTS in a major South Asian world port. The authors argue that the proactive, real-time dynamic management of common ground contributes to enhanced situational awareness and sustains safe channel navigation.

Aditi Kataria a, Gesa Praetorius b

Conference Proceedings

Seeking Harmony in Shore-based Unmanned Ship Handling - From the Perspective of Human Factors, What Is the Difference We Need to Focus on from Being Onboard to Onshore?

Previous studies have discovered that the tacit but indispensable “ship sense” from seafarers is intensively involved in creating and maintaining “harmony” to assure the safety. The concept of “harmony” reveals the continuous balanced effect by tuning the ship to the dynamic environment under different situations that ship handlers strive for.While the notions of ship sense and harmony is originally created for onboard ship maneuvering, this paper extends it to the domain of shore-based control centers for unmanned ship handling from the perspective of human factors. With the loss of direct ship-sense, the harmony is also lost. This paper analyzes the challenges from having the operator onboard to onshore during ship maneuvering and explores the changing aspects of human factors we need to focus on, in order to facilitate shore-based ship-handlers to regain the harmony. The EU project Maritime Unmanned Ship though Intelligence in Networks (MUNIN) provides the context to conduct the focus group interview of participants with seagoing experience. The shifted human factors in shore-based unmanned ship handling are discussed. The results highlight several differential aspects in human factors that should be considered, such as situation awareness. It provides keys to design shore-based control center for remote monitoring and control in accordance with user-centered design principles.

Yemao Man, Monica Lundh, Thomas Porathe

Conference Proceedings

Characteristics of Dynamic Positioning Operators' Situation Awareness and Decision Making during Critical Incidents in Maritime Operations

The maritime and offshore industries are increasingly becoming dependent on Dynamic Positioning (DP) systems for automated vessel station keeping. This study aimed to identify characteristics of DP Operators' Situation Awareness (SA) and decision-making during critical incidents. Critical incidents were defined as events that were unplanned, non-routine and where accidents could be avoided. SA was defined by Endsley's three levels model involve perception of cues in the environment (Level I SA), understanding the meaning of the cues (Level II SA) and projection of system state (Level III SA). Semi-structured interviews using the Critical Decision Method were conducted with 13 experienced DP operators. The onset of the critical incident in all 24 incidents was used as a center point for the creation of event trees. Results indicate that in 10 incidents the DPOs were not able to identify the base events (did not form Level I SA) but were able to realize the problem (understand the situation, e.g. form Level II SA), indicating that the establishment of high-level SA may not depend entirely on the establishment of low-level SA. This study contributes to an improved understanding of the formation of situation awareness and the recovery of critical incidents during demanding maritime operations.

Kjell I. Øvergårda, Linda J. Sorensena, Tone J. Martinsena, Salman Nazirb

Conference Proceedings

Safety Concerns Regarding Merging in Tunnels – A Simulator Study

The Stockholm bypass project is by far the largest road/tunnel project ever undertaken in Sweden and has been scheduled to commence construction in mid-2014. The tunnel will be over 16 km in length with two parallel tunnel tubes containing a three lane motorway. In the present study a 3D model of the Stockholm bypass tunnel has been constructed for the purpose of visualizing and further testing traffic safety and traffic management issues related to ramps exiting and entering a tunnel. Twenty-three participants with a mean age of 33.7 (SD 11.8) years drove the MUARC advanced driving simulator in two different environmental conditions (tunnel and freeway) and two different speed conditions (80 and 100 km/h). Various traffic scenarios included interaction with surrounding and merging vehicles in a comparison between the tunnel and freeway environments. Dependent measures of driving performance included vehicle speed, speed variability, lane position, lane position variability, lane excursions and time to headway. Furthermore, eye tracking and subjective measures of driver workload were used to compare participant’s reactions across environments. Results suggest that when sight lines were not restricted on the freeway, drivers reduced speed during the first merge event only. For the tunnel and freeway with restricted sight lines, there were no significant differences in mean speed across the merge segments, although even in these environments there was a trend for drivers to reduce speed at the first on-ramp. Overall, it appears that driving environment and the restricted sight lines played a limited role in drivers’ behavioural response to the merging vehicles.

Ruggero Cecia, Kristie Youngb, Christopher Pattenc, Michael Lennéb

Conference Proceedings

A Simulator Evaluation of Driver Responses to Dynamic Warning Signs at Rural Intersections

Intersections pose a risk to drivers, as they are the point at which different directions of traffic converge. Indeed a large proportion of serious and fatal crashes on Australian road occur in these circumstances. While some intersections provide less opportunity for crashes than others, unsignalised T-intersections on rural roads have the combined danger of reliance upon appropriate gap-judgments of minor road drivers turning on to the major road and the regulated high-speeds of the major road drivers. The current study investigated a strategy to mitigate high-speed crashes on rural roads by reducing the speed of major road drivers on approach to an intersecting minor road. Using a fixed-based medium-fidelity driving simulator, drivers’ speeds on major roads with intersecting minor roads were compared across three different types of warning signs. These were, a standard static side-road warning sign and two dynamic, two-state warning signs that activated when vehicles were present on the minor road. A further aim was to compare whether a regulatory sign, which when activated, mandated a speed of 80km/h (reduced from 100km/h), or an advisory sign, recommending a speed of 80km/h when activated was the most effective in reducing speed. Results indicated that when compared to the standard warning sign, dynamic regulatory and advisory signs were effective in reducing speed. However, while drivers largely complied with the regulated speed decrease of the regulatory sign, selected speeds were reliably higher than recommended by the advisory sign.

Amanda Stephens a, Eve Mitsopoulos-Rubens a, Nimmi Candappa a

Conference Proceedings

Driver Behaviour at Roadworks

Road networks around the world are reaching a critical stage in their lifecycle. Typically constructed in the 1960’s and 70’s, many of the structures, now over forty years old, require increasingly significant levels of maintenance in order to ensure their continued integrity and performance. Many national transport authorities while planning ahead for this use traffic microsimulation models to help them predict the likely effects of associated roadwork on traffic flow. The challenge faced is that these models consistently under-predict traffic flows, and the resultant queue lengths, even though there is nothing fundamentally different from a speed or lane restriction for roadworks compared to those used in other normal circumstances. The reasons for this over-prediction or under-prediction are that ‘real’ traffic behaves differently from ‘modelled’ traffic. This paper explores these differences with reference to a case study example, reviews the psychological literature for explanatory factors, and uses this to propose new guidelines for how models should be designed and calibrated for improved accuracy. In the case study presented in this paper, approximately a lane’s worth of capacity is being lost due to ‘soft’ driver behaviour factors. This paper helps to explain why this is happening and how it can be recovered.

Guy Walker, Malcolm Calvert

Conference Proceedings

Development and Evaluation of a Rural Intersection Active Warning System

This study describes the development of a Rural Intersection Active Warning System (RIAWS) and the outcomes from the first two RIAWS pilot sites in New Zealand. The RIAWS trial is part of a wider programme by the NZ government to address safety at high risk intersections. The evaluation measures reported here include system performance, motorist speed and driver perception. The RIAWS has the aim of reducing fatal and serious crashes at high risk intersections by reducing traffic speed when potential for a collision exists. Side road and right turn sensors trigger a variable speed limit of 70 km/h on major roads with existing 100 km/h speed limits. Motorist behaviour and perceptions since RIAWS implementation have been positive. Modal traffic speeds at the intersections when the 70 km/h speed limit sign is activated range from 68-72 km/h compared with modal speeds of 81-96 km/h before RIAWS installation, when potentially conflicting traffic is present. Driver feedback via a questionnaire suggests that most motorists understand the purpose of the system and believe the signs are conspicuous, legible and credible. The findings suggest that RIAWS is likely to significantly reduce the crash forces involved in collisions at high speed intersections and potentially reduce the likelihood of collisions.

Hamish Mackie a, Colin Brodie b, Ken Holstc, Fergus Tated, Richard Scotte

Conference Proceedings

Redesigning Existing Urban Streets to Optimize Multiple Outcomes

This paper describes a programme of neighbourhood scale intervention research in Auckland New Zealand, with the aim of creating inherently safer streets that also enhance public health and community wellbeing. The research began with a study called Self Explaining Roads (SER) and a second, larger project called Future Streets is currently in progress. For the Self Explaining Roads study approximately 11 km of local and collector roads were modified within an existing suburban area using SER principles. A programme of evaluation found a 30% reduction in traffic crashes and an 80% reduction in crash costs three years following the SER intervention. Mean traffic speed for local streets reduced to 30 km/hr and speed variance reduced for all streets. Pedestrian outcomes also improved on local streets and distinct road user behaviour characteristics for the two road types were achieved, reinforcing the achievement of a successful SER intervention trial. A further intervention study (Future Streets) focusing more deliberately on active modes and public health outcomes, but still including SER principles, is currently in progress. A process of participatory design is being used to develop street changes in an intervention area. A control area has also been assigned and a range of road safety and public health measures will be carried out in both areas, before and after the intervention changes. The studies will hopefully lead to more informed decisions about the nature of urban street infrastructure investment in the future.

Hamish Mackie

Conference Proceedings

An Investigation of Motorist Behavior in Taiwan

Taiwan is a group of islands located in East Asia on the northwest side of the Pacific Ocean. The area of these islands is 36,000 km2 and their total population is 23.37 million. A total of 7.1 million cars and 15 million motorcycles are registered. The combined number of motor vehicles is in line with the total population. On average, each person has at least one land vehicle. The number of motorcycles is twice that of cars. The Taiwanese news media have long reported that car drivers often strike motorcyclists passing from behind because they open their car doors improperly. This leads to injury or even death among motorcyclists. Human factors are the cause of this issue. In this study, we examined civil judgments on improper car door opening in district courts in 2010 and 2011. After collecting 43 cases of accidents caused by improper car door opening, we found that accidents occurred in counties and cities in western Taiwan with dense populations and poor public transportation, such as Taichung, Taoyuan, and Kaohsiung. Half of all motorcyclists involved in these accidents were severely injured, disabled, put into comas, or died. The drivers who caused these accidents each paid an average of approximately 100,000 zloty in reparations. Finally, we made ergonomic design suggestions for three types of accidents. For example, the left front doors of cars should be required to have two-stage opening methods. Left rear doors should be openable only from the outside. Roads in metropolitan areas should have temporary parking spaces for passengers to exit vehicles from the right side. In the future, we hope that these suggestions can be implemented in the ergonomic design of cars in Taiwan to avoid injury to motorcyclists.

Cheng-Yong Huang

Conference Proceedings

Real or Imagined? A Study Exploring the Existence of Common Method Variance Effects in Road Safety Research

Common method variance (CMV) has received little attention within the field of road safety research despite a heavy reliance on self-report data. Two surveys were completed by 214 motorists over a two-month period, allowing associations between social desirability and key road safety variables and relationships between scales across the two survey waves to be examined. Social desirability was found to have a strong negative correlation with the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) sub-scales as well as age, but not with crashes and offences. Drivers who scored higher on the social desirability scale were also less likely to report aberrant driving behaviours as measured by the DBQ. Controlling for social desirability did not substantially alter the predictive relationship between the DBQ and the crash and offences variables. The strength of the correlations within and between the two waves were also compared with the results strongly suggesting that effects associated with CMV were present. Identification of CMV would be enhanced by the replication of this study with a larger sample size and comparing self-report data with official sources.

Peter Barraclough, Anders af Wåhlberg*, James Freeman, Jeremy Davey, Barry Watson

Conference Proceedings

Evaluation of and Design Implications for Force-Sensitive Touch Input Devices

The increasing amount of innovations in the functionality of car electronics (e.g. advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and in-vehicle infotainment systems (IVIS)) leads to new challenges in the research of human-machine-interaction. A recent trend in the automotive industry is the integration of resistive or capacitive touchscreens as input devices into the car cockpit, following a user demand which origins in consumer electronics. Nowadays typical resistive and capacitive touchscreens have certain drawbacks in their distraction potential and their usability, resulting in safety-critical situations and negative user feedback. In this paper a different technical approach towards touch input technology is proposed, which combines the advantages of both resistive and capacitive touchscreens, while eliminating their disadvantages. Two studies -a qualitative expert evaluation and a driving simulator study- evaluating the technology, are presented in this paper.

Lisa Diwischeka, Jason Lissemanb, Stefanie Essersa

Conference Proceedings

Better Vehicle Design for All

There is a growing population of older people around the world and the population of older drivers is showing a parallel increase. According to 2012 figures of the UK Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency there are more than 15 million people with a driving license aged over 60; more than 1 million of these are over 80. A questionnaire survey of older compared to younger drivers (n=903) and supplementary interviews with drivers aged ≥ 65 years (n=15) were conducted. The questionnaire survey covered: musculoskeletal symptoms, the vehicle seat, access to specific vehicle features, ingress/egress, driving performance and driving behavior. In terms of musculoskeletal symptoms, significantly more discomfort was reported by older drivers in the hips, thighs, buttocks and knees compared to younger drivers. 10.5% of respondents reported that they were dissatisfied with adjusting specific seat features, namely the head rest height, head rest distance from the head and setting the seat belt height. Females reported more difficulty than males. Older males and females (16.8%) reported more difficulties with parallel parking and driving on a foggy day than younger (12.2%) drivers (p<0.01). Compared to younger drivers, older drivers also reported being less distracted when using navigation systems (25.5% and 19.5% respectively).

Sukru Karali, Diane E. Gyi, Neil J. Mansfield

Conference Proceedings

Pedestrian Navigation Guidance for Elderly People’s Safe and Easy Wayfinding

In order to reduce anxiety of pedestrian navigation users, we have proposed a route planning algorithm, which weighs user’s difficulty of locating own current position as well as total physical distance of courses. The cost function for evaluating routes is expanded by adding elapsed time of locating each intersection to the original cost of route distance. The elapsed time at an intersection is estimated based on valuation functions of effectiveness of landmarks. The functions were constructed based on data collected through cognitive experiments with younger participants. The fundamental validity of the proposal method was confirmed through practical experiments. The aim of this study was to extend the object of the navigation guidance method to elderly people, as well as younger people. Considering the degradation of cognitive functions of elderly users, we modified three functions: the valuation functions for recognizability of landmarks, the valuation function of landmark’s effectiveness, and the cost function for route planning. Three cognitive experiments were conducted to acquire actual data for the modification. The results indicate that the functions acquired are quite fit to the data of the experiments, and suggest that the modified method is useful for estimating walking time for routes by elderly users.

Hiroshi Furukawa

Conference Proceedings

Seat Design Parameters for an Elevated Driving Posture

Studies have shown that whilst emissions from passenger vehicles have fallen in the last 20-years, emissions from light commercial vehicles (LCVs) have risen. An elevated driving seat will result in a driving posture higher than in conventional vehicles and will benefit vehicle deign in terms of a reduction in vehicles’ mass potentially resulting in reduced emissions. This paper reports on a study with the objective of identifying the static seat design parameters for such an elevated seat. A sample of 20 commercial drivers (10 males, 10 females) aged 19-65, were recruited for the study. A driving rig was designed and built to offer nine key seat sub-component adjustments, deemed highly important to selecting a comfortable driving set up. Each sub-component was adjusted in an iterative process to define an optimum position for each driver and was then recorded along with participant verbatim. Results indicated that leg length is a good predictor of the seat height and the distance from the pedals (PH Gap) and that sitting height is a good predictor for the positioning of the backrest. The preferred length of the seat base was much shorter and the width much wider, respectively, than that observed in current LCVs.

Jordan Smith, Neil Mansfield, Diane Gyi

Conference Proceedings

Information Fusion for Driver Distraction Studies Using Eye Tracking Glasses

Eye tracking research about driver distraction, applied to real world driving tasks, has so far demanded a massive amount of manual intervention, for the annotation of hundreds of hours of head camera videos. We present a novel methodology that enables the automated integration of arbitrary gaze localizations onto a visual object and its local surrounding in order to draw heat maps directly onto the environment. Gaze locations are tracked in video frames of the eye tracking glasses’ head camera, within the regions about the driver’s environment, using optical flow methodology. The high robustness and accuracy of the optical flow based tracking - measured with a residual mean error of ca. 0.3 pixels on sequences, captured and verified in 576 individual trials - enables a fully automated estimation of the driver’s attention processes, for example in the context of roadside objects. We present results from a typical driver distraction study and visualize the performance of fully aggregated human attention behavior.

Lucas Paletta a, Michael Schwarz a, Caroline Wollendorfer b, Roland Perko a

Conference Proceedings

Some Challenges in the Design of Human-Automation Interaction for Safety-Critical Systems

Increasing amounts of automation are being introduced to safety-critical domains. While the introduction of automation has led to an overall increase in reliability and improved safety, it has also introduced a class of failure modes, and new challenges in risk assessment for the new systems, particularly in the assessment of rare events resulting from complex inter-related factors. Designing successful human-automation systems is challenging, and the challenges go beyond good interface development (e.g., Roth, Malin, & Schreckenghost 1997; Christoffersen & Woods, 2002). Human-automation design is particularly challenging when the underlying automation technology generates behavior that is difficult for the user to anticipate or understand. These challenges have been recognized in several safety-critical domains, and have resulted in increased efforts to develop training, procedures, regulations and guidance material (CAST, 2008, IAEA, 2001, FAA, 2013, ICAO, 2012). This paper points to the continuing need for new methods to describe and characterize the operational environment within which new automation concepts are being presented. We will describe challenges to the successful development and evaluation of human–automation systems in safety-critical domains, and describe some approaches that could be used to address these challenges. We will draw from experience with the aviation, spaceflight and nuclear power domains.

Michael Feary a, Emilie Roth b

Conference Proceedings

Methodological Issues of Pilots’ Performance Assessment

The paper provides a review of present-day studies on the problem of pilots’ performance in various flight conditions, with a focus on their methodology. Conceptual frameworks of the studies (concepts of working capacity, functional state and mental workload) are discussed, and different objective and subjective measures and methods used are described. Eye-tracking is regarded with special attention as a promising tool able to examine the internal mechanisms of pilots’ performance. The paper hints to the importance of systemic methodological approach to pilots’ performance assessment and proposes the direction for further research in the field of aviation psychophysiology.

Igor V. Bukhtiyarov, K. Wolfgang Kallusb, Evgeniya S. Osokinaac, Christine M. Talker b

Conference Proceedings

Detection of a Decrease in Concentration Using Indices Derived from Heart Rate and Respiration Toward Affective Human-Robot Interaction

The present paper refers the method to detect the degraded concentration of human who is engaged in computer work or watching television in order to find the appropriate timing for robot’s interrupt. The heart rate and respiratory measures were confirmed to change depending on the degree of concentration by an experiment. Principle component analysis was applied and two measure components were selected and rotated by the varimax method. The first principle component represented large low frequency component of heart rate variability (HRV), low respiratory frequency and large respiratory irregularity, while the second component represented high heart rate, small high frequency component of HRV. It was suggested that the first principle component can be used to discriminate between concentrated and degraded concentrated sates of human.

Mieko Ohsuga, Hidenori Boutani

Conference Proceedings

Heart Rate Variability as a Mental Workload Index

In this study, we investigated relationship between task characteristics such as sensory intake and cardiovascular responses. Nineteen male participants were asked to perform a mental arithmetic task (MA) and a computerized mirror tracing (MT) task for five minutes each. In the MA task, participants were instructed to respond within five seconds by pressing the left or right mouse button. Therefore, this task includes a high time pressure (temporal restriction). In the MT task, participants were required to trace a zigzag pathway displayed on a PC screen by using a mouse. The horizontal and vertical control elements of the mouse were exchanged with each other. This task contains a sensory intake characteristic which induces parasympathetic dominance resulting in bradycardia. ECG and arterial blood pressure were continuously recorded during the two task blocks and before (PRE) and after (POST) resting periods of five minutes each. Heart rate variability indexes such as low frequency (LF) component, high frequency (HF) component and LF/HF ratio were derived. In the results, heart rate (HR) was considerably larger in the MA compared to PRE. On the contrary, the HR change was small in the MT, suggesting that the physiological response in MT is a pattern 2 type which is typically induced by a sensory intake task, although no significant difference was found between the two tasks. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) and Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were higher in the MT than MA, but there was no significant difference between them. Both SBP and DBP were significantly higher in the task periods than resting periods. Significant differences were found only between PRE and MT, and PRE and POST in LF/HF which showed the highest value in POST, suggesting that the LF/HF ratio is not a reliable mental workload index.

Shinji Miyake*, Hiroyuki Kuraoka, Chikamune Wada

Conference Proceedings

VOD-CA – Testing a Velocity-Obstacle based Display for Collision Avoidance in Aviation

Aircraft separation and systems for its support are one of the most important fields in aviation research. ACAS/TCAS gives an evidence of other aircraft around, but it does not show how other airplanes will fly regarding the ownship. A Velocity-Obstacle based Display for Collision Avoidance (VOD-CA) shall assist pilots to avoid conflicts by recognizing them early. Because there is velocity space represented but without spatial reference, potential problems in handling could occur. For that reason, VOD-CA and its comprehension were tested. We linked the understanding of VOD-CA to common measures of intelligence. It is assumed that spatial thinking might play a role, because even though velocity space is different to the familiar areal space, it might still require similar abilities to comprehend. Furthermore, we hypothesized that numerical memory is linked to the understanding, because there are several numbers shown on the display, which are important to understand the information given. Besides, we thought that there will be an interaction with visual-spatial intelligence because of the type of representation. While some expected interactions were observed there was no evidence that spatial thinking is neither helpful nor obstructive in understanding velocity space. Most participants could handle VOD-CA well and resolved potential conflicts before they occurred.

Ursa Katharina Johanna Nagler, Peer Manske, Pierre Sachse, Marco Michael Nitzschner, Markus Martini, Marco Furtner

Conference Proceedings

How to Involve Psychophysiology in the Field of Transportation: Recent Contributions to an Applied Psychophysics Problem

Especially in the field of transportation many facets of human factors should be considered. Many of them can profit from the inclusion of psychophysiological methods. Thinking about well-designed and high-quality products that have the possibility to inspire customers, leads to the problem that subjective sound impression cannot easily be described by technical parameters. To connect customer requirements and technical specifications, subjective assessments of experts and/or customers are widely used. But subjective assessments are mostly not enough to uncover small quality differences between sounds. Therefore, a multidimensional approach that combines subjective assessments, objective physical parameters of the sounds and psychophysiological measures should be used for investigations. Results of a first investigation with in-vehicle sounds show that a multidimensional approach can support product development and can be seen as possibility to involve human factors in the highly technical environment of transportation. This method can be also usable in other areas of product development in the field of transportation. So, further research should be considered to investigate the use of a multidimensional approach in these areas too.

Verena Wagner, K. Wolfgang Kallus

Conference Proceedings

Comparing the Perception of Critical Longitudinal Distances between Dynamic Driving Simulation, Test Track and Vehicle in the Loop

The choice of an appropriate research environment is a fundamental issue for research on advanced driver assistance system controllability which precedes questions regarding the criticality of test scenarios and the deduction of pass-fail-criteria. The methodological trade-off between research on test tracks and driving simulation cannot be resolved easily. While test track research allows for the analysis of human interaction with real vehicle dynamics, the investigation of safety-critical situations requires considerable technological efforts and is sometimes not feasible. E.g., the complexity of real-life urban scenarios cannot be readily replicated on a test track. These restrictions do not apply to driving simulations, but limitations concerning visual and vestibular feedback raise the question of external validity. To the best of our knowledge, the perception of critical longitudinal car following distances, as measured by time headway, has been investigated on a limited scope and not under highly standardized conditions. We aim to extend the knowledge in this domain. In our study, three test environments were compared: a dynamic driving simulator, a test track vehicle, and the novel Vehicle-In-the-Loop (VIL), which is a hybrid between a test track vehicle and a driving simulator. As a result, relative validity for the perception of distance measures was established between the test environments. However, time headways were generally judged to be more critical in both simulator environments compared to the test track – a finding that should be considered when conducting future research.

Christian Purucker, Fabian Rüger, Norbert Schneider, Alexandra Neukum, Berthold Färber

Conference Proceedings

The Effect of Urgency of Take-Over Requests During Highly Automated Driving Under Distraction Conditions

Highly automated driving may improve driving comfort and safety in the near future. Due to possible system limits of highly automated driver support, the driver is expected to take over the vehicle control if a so-called take-over request is issued. One example of these system limits are missing or ending lines on motorways. This study focuses on the design of take-over requests in such situations. Using a motion-based driving simulator, N = 16 participants encountered different take-over situations in congested traffic that varied in their difficulty: ending lines on straight road (easy), temporary lines due to a work zone (moderate) and loss of lines in a situation with high curvature (difficult). The driver support consisted of a hands-off system that was taking over longitudinal and lateral control. Participants were asked to perform a secondary task while driving. Take-over requests were presented either visually or visual-auditory. Drivers’ hands-on times (i.e., time until driver puts hands back on the steering wheel) are lower if visual-auditory take-over requests are used in comparison to purely visual ones. Measures of lateral vehicle control also show an advantage of visual-auditory take-over requests. Differences between the take-over concepts are especially pronounced in difficult take-over situations.

Frederik Naujoks, Christoph Mai, Alexandra Neukum

Conference Proceedings

Mediating the Interaction between Human and Automation during the Arbitration Processes in Cooperative Guidance and Control of Highly Automated Vehicles: Base concept and First Study

With increasingly automated vehicles, the cooperation between the automation and the human becomes crucial. In cooperative guidance and control (CGC) of highly automated vehicles the questions arise how authority, responsibility and control are distributed between driver and automation, how this distribution is obtained and how different states like abilities, availabilities and modes are communicated between driver and automation. If two independently thinking entities start planning and acting together, the emergence of conflicts is inevitable. These conflicts can be solved by applying the method of arbitration. Arbitration works with different modalities as well as on different planning levels. To handle the complex interdependencies in human-automation interaction in the guidance and control of highly automated vehicles, an “interaction mediator” was designed to incorporate a framework of modules, which in turn are designed to be easily extendable. These modules are the “Mode Selection and Arbitration Unit”, enabling a proper distribution of responsibility depending on present abilities and availabilities, the “Manoeuvre Selection and Arbitration Unit”, the “Trajectory Adaption and Arbitration Unit”, and the “Coupling Valve” where control commands depending on the distribution of responsibility and control are coupled to one common control command for the entire ego-vehicle.

Marcel Baltzer, Eugen Altendorf, Sonja Meier, Frank Flemisch

Conference Proceedings

Transition of Control: Automation Giving Back Control to the Driver

The automotive domain is currently moving towards automated driver assistance applications, like automatic evasive maneuvers to avoid accidents, and even beyond assistance towards automated driving. However, in the near future these systems will only be active under certain conditions, thus still requiring manual control in other conditions. This means that there will be ‘transitions of control’: from the driver to the automated system and vice versa. Then research questions like ‘how should the system take over’, ‘how can the driver take back control’, and ‘can the driver be regarded as a backup if the system fails’, etc. arise. This paper addresses the effects of various parameters in handing back the control to the driver. This is done for TNO’s virtual tow bar system, which is an automated driving system that controls both the longitudinal and lateral vehicle motion at very close following for economic driving. This paper presents results of a driving simulator experiment executed with the aim to evaluate different parameters settings in switching the tow bar system on and off. Due to the short following distances and safety implications of this, there is be a procedure for hooking on / off of the tow bar system. Special attention is paid to driver behavior just after getting back control following a period of automated driving.

Dehlia Willemsen, Arjan Stuiver, Jeroen Hogema

Conference Proceedings

Influence of Expertise on the Judgment of Controllability of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems

Modern passenger vehicles are equipped with a rising number of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). The increasing complexity of these systems causes issues of controllability that need to be dealt with. The RESPONSE 3 Code of Practice (CoP) provides methods to assess the controllability of ADAS within the framework of ISO26262. Among the methods described in the CoP is the expert review (RESPONSE 3, 2009). However, no quantifiable requirements for such expert reviews are given. This paper describes a vehicle simulator study that aims to compare the judgment behavior of experts with that of naïve participants to draw conclusions on the applicability of expert reviews of controllability. The results of the study show that for the studied sample of experts there is no advantage in the variance of the obtained judgments for either group. The higher expertise however did exhibit itself in a trend towards more critical judgments of the observed situations. It is concluded that the application of expert reviews in the evaluation of controllability of ADAS should be studied in more detail. The results indicate that the conduct of expert reviews of controllability with high requirements of precision is not trivial and requires in-depth analysis.

Patrick Galaskea, Mehdi Farida, Klaus Benglerb

Conference Proceedings

Evaluating an Advance Warning Sign for Level Crossings

Over 90% of the risk at level crossings is a result of the way members of the public can behave when using them. As part of a broader piece of work reviewing signs and signals currently used at public road level crossings in Great Britain, road users’ comprehension of the two level crossing advance warning signs was evaluated by questionnaire survey. Although most road users surveyed understood that both of the signs were about level crossings, the difference in meaning between the two signs was not widely understood. Based on these results and the findings of the wider study, prototype designs were produced for a single sign to replace the two existing signs. These were evaluated by questionnaire survey. The confusion that exists between the two existing signs was eliminated by displaying a single sign. Furthermore, road users found two of the prototype designs to be easier to understand than the current signs. The fact that new designs previously unknown to road users were found to be more easily understood suggests that these new designs are more intuitively recognisable. Work is on-going to carry out further user testing of the new designs.

Dan Basacik (RSSB), Stephanie Cynk (TRL), Toni Flint, John McMorrow (RSSB)

Conference Proceedings

Drivers’ Visual Scanning and Head Check Behavior on Approach to Urban Rail Level Crossings

Rail level crossings in urban areas are often located in areas of high visual clutter such as busy shopping strip areas. The impact of such visual clutter on drivers’ behavior and compliance with level crossing controls is not well understood. This study examines drivers’ visual scanning behavior on approach to five urban rail level crossings located in shopping strips. Twenty participants drove an instrumented vehicle around a pre-defined urban route containing a range of active (flashing light with boom barriers) rail level crossings. Drivers' eye glance and head check behavior during the 150 meter approach to each crossing was coded from video. Results revealed that drivers direct their visual attention off the forward roadway to a range of areas inside and outside the vehicle when approaching the crossing, with around 10 percent of glance fixations made to areas away from the forward roadway and the level crossing. Drivers made very few head checks of the crossing on approach, suggesting that they are heavily reliant on the crossing signals to alert them to the presence of a train. This study provides important insight into drivers’ visual behavior on approach to urban level crossings located in areas of high visual demand.

Kristie L. Younga, Michael G. Lennéa, Vanessa Beanlandb, Paul M. Salmonc, Neville A. Stantond

Conference Proceedings

How Well Do People Understand the Signs and Signals at User Worked Level Crossings?

In 2012, RSSB commissioned TRL to carry out a review of the signs and signals at user-worked level crossings (UWCs) to identify whether improvements can be made. This paper describes a comprehension survey of these signs and signals and presents the findings for three signs: a ‘Stop Look Listen Sign for Pedestrians’, a ‘Stop Look Listen Sign for Drivers’, a ‘Stop and Telephone Sign for Drivers’; and one signal: a miniature stop light (MSL). An online questionnaire was administered to 224 road users to determine the extent to which the information provided at these types of crossings is well understood. The results show that respondents’ understanding of the road user types at which each of the three signs is aimed is poor regardless of experience or context. In addition, the results show that there is a lack of understanding about the appropriate procedure to follow for two of the signs and the MSL signal. The implications of these findings are that the design of information at user-worked level crossings needs to be improved. These methods for improvement will be identified and evaluated during the next phase of the work.

Stephanie Cynka, Toni Flintb, John McMorrowb

Conference Proceedings

Improving the Railway’s Understanding of Accident Causation Through an Integrated Approach to Human Factors Analysis and Technical Safety Data Recording

This paper describes a safety data recording and analysis system that has been developed to capture safety occurrences including precursors using high-definition forward-facing video from train cabs and data from other train-borne systems. The paper describes the data processing model and how events detected through data analysis are related to an underlying socio-technical model of accident causation. The integrated approach to safety data recording and analysis insures systemic factors that condition, influence or potentially contribute to an occurrence are captured both for safety occurrences and precursor events, providing a rich tapestry of antecedent causal factors that can significantly improve learning around accident causation. This can ultimately provide benefit to railways through the development of targeted and more effective countermeasures, better risk models and more effective use and prioritization of safety funds. Level crossing occurrences are a key focus in this paper with data analysis scenarios describing causal factors around near-miss occurrences. The paper concludes with a discussion on how the system can also be applied to other types of railway safety occurrences.

Christian Wullems a, Geoff Dell b, Yvonne Toft b

Conference Proceedings

Evaluating Design Hypotheses for Rail Level Crossings: An Observational Study of Pedestrian and Cyclist Behavior

Accidents involving pedestrians at rail level crossings are a significant public safety concern in Australia and internationally. The current design of rail crossings incorporates assumptions and hypotheses about how people will interact with the infrastructure at the crossing. The hypotheses associated with the design of pedestrian rail crossings in metropolitan Melbourne were evaluated through the findings of naturalistic observations of users. Comparison of actual behavior as recorded in the observations was compared to the design hypotheses relating to the features at the crossing. While for some the majority of behavior was in line with the hypothesis, it was found that a number of the hypotheses were not always supported. The evaluation uncovered unexpected interactions between users and the infrastructure, as well as implications for rail crossing design. The findings support the need for a systems approach to the analysis and design of rail crossings from a pedestrian and cyclist safety perspective to assist understanding of the system and to inform its re-design.

Gemma J. M. Reada, Paul M. Salmonb, Michael G. Lennéc, Elizabeth M. Greyd

Conference Proceedings

Being “Always On” in Vehicles – The use of Apps While Driving Bears Risks

The availability of Smartphones leads to an increased demand for being “always on”. This demand does not only include being always on during everyday life but also demanding Smartphone usage while driving. Many previous studies have shown that using a mobile phone while driving does have an impact on driving safety, but little is known about Smartphone and infotainment usage. This paper presents an online survey with 215 participants, which was conducted at the Institute of Ergonomics of the Technische Universität Darmstadt. The aim of the survey was to identify needs, requirements, wishes and usage patterns of drivers to the issue of using mobile devices and infotainment systems during driving. Results show that current drivers use Smartphones and infotainment systems while driving, even though they are aware of the associated risks and have often experienced hazardous situations that can be traced back to that usage. Additionally, drivers perceived the usage of internet and applications as more distracting than the use of mobile phones. Still, participants were not willing to omit usage but rather demanded for better display and control concepts. The implications of the results are discussed within this paper.

Benjamin Franz, Ilka Zöller, Michaela Kauer, Leander Schulz, Bettina Abendroth, Ralph Bruder

Conference Proceedings

Analysis of Factors Associated with Speeding Among Road Users in Malaysia

Speeding is a serious threat to traffic safety. Similar to other nations, speeding is the leading causes for road traffic crashes and fatalities in Malaysia. The present study was designed to explore the factors associated with speeding among road users to ensure better strategies can be formulated in encouraging drivers to comply with the speed limit. A cross-sectional survey using questionnaire was conducted among 1194 road users. Logistic regression was performed to analyse the association of speeding behaviour with ten independent variables. Seven factors were significantly associated with speeding behaviour. Belief yielded the highest odds ratio (OR) 3.6 and followed by the experience of being summoned by an enforcement officer for speeding (OR: 2.3). In contrast, perception of being caught for speeding was negatively associated with speeding (OR: 0.94) followed by gender (OR: 0.60) and race (OR: 0.52). Type of vehicle and attitude were also significantly associated with speeding, OR were 0.28 and 0.14 respectively. The study revealed that enforcement activities and belief on speeding play a very important role in reducing speeding behaviour. This study highlights the need to identify the main factors at the community level for instance enforcement activities in order to design effective intervention programme.

Noradrenalina Isah, Nor Fadilah Mohd Soid

Conference Proceedings

Comparing Road Users with High and Low Perceived Risk of Being Caught for Traffic Infringement in Malaysia

The ‘balik kampung’ or visiting hometown among city dwellers generates a high volume of traffic due to the increasing number of vehicles on the road during festive seasons. Moreover, there will be an increment in the number of fatalities recorded compared to the previous year. Thus, a series of enforcement programmes within two weeks was conducted every festive season in order to solve the problem. The purpose of the study was to explore factors associated with perceived risk of being caught among motorists to ensure better strategies can be formulated to instill discipline of traffic obligations. A total of 1219 drivers were asked to complete a set of questionnaires in order to assess their perceived risk of being caught. The study identifies nine variables associated with motorists perceived risk of being caught, however only four were statistically associated with higher perceived risk of being caught for traffic infringement. The study concludes that there is a need to elevate the perceived risk of being caught when infringes traffic rules. Despite several years of conducting integrated enforcement programmes, a substantial portion of drivers does not feel it likelihood to be caught if committed traffic offenses.

Nor Fadilah Mohd Soid, Noradrenalina Isah

Conference Proceedings

A Review of International Speed Enforcement Policies and Practices: Evidence-Based Recommendations for Best Practice

Extensive research has highlighted the positive and exponential relationship between vehicle speed and crash risk and severity. Speed enforcement policies and practices throughout the world have developed dramatically as new technology becomes available, however speeding remains a pervasive problem internationally that significantly contributes to road trauma. This paper adopted a three-pronged approach to review speed enforcement policies and practices by: (i) describing and comparing policies and practices adopted in a cross-section of international jurisdictions; (ii) reviewing the available empirical evidence evaluating the effectiveness of various approaches; and, (iii) providing recommendations for the optimisation speed enforcement. The review shows the enforcement strategies adopted in various countries differ both in terms of the approaches used and how they are specifically applied. The literature review suggests strong and consistent evidence that police speed enforcement, in particular speed cameras, can be an effective tool for reducing vehicle speeds and subsequent traffic crashes. Drawing from this evidence, recommendations for best practice are proposed, including the specific instances in which various speed enforcement approaches typically produce the greatest road safety benefits, and perhaps most importantly, that speed enforcement programs must utilise a variety of strategies tailored to specific situations, rather than a one-size-fits-all approach.

David Soole, Barry Watson, Judy Fleiter

Conference Proceedings

The Effect of Communicational Signals on Drivers’ Emotion States

Negative emotions seriously impair drivers’ decision making and driving behaviors. As the primary channel of on-road communication between drivers, vehicle signals (e.g. turn signals, hazard lights and horn) provide an effective approach to reduce on-road conflicts and improve drivers’ emotion states. Present study evaluated the emotion induced by communicational signals upon drivers with varied personality characteristics. Correlation between decoded meanings, attitude and emotion was further analyzed to explain the mechanism from personality to emotion states in the scope of signal communication during driving. The results suggested that drivers with lower extraversion and agreeableness, higher neuroticism were easier to become negative when perceived aggressive signals. However, appropriate signals with kindness could remarkably improve drivers’ emotion and attitude towards others.

Yutao Ba, Wei Zhang, Gavriel Salvendy

Conference Proceedings

Testing the Cognitive Load of Gesture Interaction on Drivers When Performing Tertiary Tasks

With the development of the car industry, more and more electronic devices have been used in automobiles in order to provide greater functionality and improve the driving experience. However, performing tertiary tasks such as changing songs on an in-car mp3 player or resetting a navigation system while driving increases visual interaction and cognitive load for drivers. In order to provide drivers a better interactive control, different kinds of control modalities such as touch display and gesture control have been developed, yet no research has been done in terms of reducing users’ cognitive load. This paper hypothesizes that using air gesture control to perform secondary tasks will reduce driver’s cognitive load. An experiment will be performed with a driving simulator to compare the cognitive load on a driver among a new gesture-based interface, a multi-touch based interface, and a tactile interface. Cognitive load will be measured through the change of the pupil diameter of the driver and gathered via a remote eye tracking system. The effectiveness, efficiency, and the users’ satisfaction towards each interface will be measured.

Xiaolong Wu, Young Mi Choi

Conference Proceedings