Human Factors in Transportation

AHFE International

Accelerating Open Access Science in Human Factors Engineering and Human-Centered Computing

Human Factors in Transportation

book-cover

Editors: Katie Plant, Gesa Praetorius

Topics: Transportation Engineering

Publication Date: 2022

ISBN: 978-1-958651-36-0

DOI: 10.54941/ahfe1002426

Articles

When cycling again - Comparison of safety behaviors of between cyclists of shared, private and public bike in China

Although great convenience has been brought to hundred millions of commuters by bike sharing schemes in recent year in China, safety issues of shared bikes received a lot of concerns. The ever rising number of cyclists make the investigation of safety in riding shared bike an imminent task. We compare the accidents and safety events rate between cyclists of different shared bikes and private bikes, as well as the safety relevant behavior, such as compliance to traffic regulations, and violations like calling mobiles while riding. The survey results indicated that cyclists of commercial shared bike reported more safety incidents, compared to cyclists of private bike and public shared bike, and that cyclists of commercial shared bike also reported more malfunction in brakes and worse maintenance of bikes. However, no significant differences in wearing protection equipment between different bike cyclists. And cyclists of commercial shared bike indicate higher propensity to check information to assist bike riding. Our findings that cyclists of commercial shared bike reported more safety incidents more problems in brakes and worse maintenance may provide suggestions for practitioners in the field.

Fan Zhou

Conference Proceedings

SafeBike - a road safety programme for young adolescent cyclists

In 2019, approximately 29,000 children (up to 15 years of age) were involved in road traffic accidents in Germany. The cohorts with the most accident victims are the 11- to 14-year-olds, about half of whom (approx. 6,000 children) were involved in accidents by bicycle. The number of cyclists involved in accidents rises sharply after the transition from primary to secondary school. This is due to a change in driving behavior after the change of school compared to the primary school period. Many pupils start cycling to school after changing to secondary school. Furthermore, extensive behavioral changes occur with the onset of puberty, which, for example, increases the willingness to take risks in road traffic. SafeBike is a road safety program for the particularly vulnerable target group of 11 to 14-year-old cyclists based on observation procedures, self-reflection and personal responsibility. The basic aim of SafeBike is to raise students' awareness of danger perception when cycling, leading to an increased sense of safety in the short term, so that in the long term the number of cycling accidents in the target group will decrease. After participating in the program, students are expected to be more critical of their own behavior, among other things. SafeBike consists of three components: a self-assessment of one's own driving behavior in terms of safety, the treatment of several subject areas in which driving errors and traffic conflicts occur more frequently, and a final re-assessment of one's own driving behavior.The traffic effects of the program were surveyed and evaluated in a pilot test at two different schools in Germany. In the post-surveys, the test group committed about 50% fewer traffic conflicts and driving errors than the control group, which attests to the very high short-term effectiveness of SafeBike. In the control group, who did not complete the program, no significant improvements occurred in comparison to the before survey, in contrast to the subject group. In the test group, there were significant positive effects, especially in the case of driving errors that occurred particularly frequently in the pre-surveys and were correspondingly addressed in the program and discussed by the students. Particularly high positive effects were achieved with conversations while driving, at the pedestrian crossing and using the pavement on the wrong side of the road. Medium effects were achieved with hand signals and looking around. This means that the road safety program can be used in road safety education throughout the country. However, long-term effects are not yet available and must be determined in further studies.

Franz Lambrecht, Carsten Sommer

Conference Proceedings

Digitizing Buttons: A Comparison of Digital Input Modalities to Replace Physical Buttons in Truck Cockpits

Commercial vehicle cockpits are, due to a high number of control elements, complex workplaces. To simplify the interaction, fewer buttons could only present currently relevant functions, which requires dynamic and therefore digital input modalities. While such modalities exist, their fitness for use in commercial vehicles has to be proven and compared. For this, a user study with N = 23 truck drivers was conducted to evaluate three potential hardware approaches with regards to operating safety and user acceptance. Results indicate minor differences in operating safety and none in acceptance ratings for buttons with display strip, buttons with integrated displays and a touchscreen with haptic feedback.

Lasse Schölkopf, Alicia Kneuper, Veronika Hutmann, Frank Diermeyer

Conference Proceedings

The Effects of Multi-modal Takeover Request on Distracted Drivers’ Takeover Performance and Perception

Visual and cognitive distractions caused by non-driving related tasks (NDRT) engagement and over-trust were exposed and considered a serious driving safety hazard for the automated driving system (ADS). However, the typical HMI design of takeover request (TOR) in the market (displaying a symbol in the digital cluster with an auditory warning) can be easily unnoticed, especially in auditory conflicts scenarios, and should be optimized urgently. This study introduced four multi-modality combinations of TOR. It examined the differences in drivers’ reaction time, reaction quality, and subjective perception in situations where the drivers were experiencing visual and cognitive distractions. Eighteen drivers participated in the driving-simulator experiment. Results showed that the symbol and speech combination was difficult to notice, yet it was the easiest to understand. Vibration and speech combination could effectively alert the distracted drivers within the shortest time, but there was negative experience feedback from the drivers. Ambient light and speech combination could guide drivers but was inconvenient in time-critical situations. Vibration, light, and speech combination has shown a better performance and user experience in general. Our results provide multi-modal TOR design implications that improve takeover performances and user experiences.

Ye Yang, Mengying Deng, Yaohua Zhou, Mingjiang Shi, Ruixuan Gao

Conference Proceedings

Confidence Horizon for a Dynamic Balance between Drivers and Vehicle Automation: First Sketch and Application

Advances in operator state monitoring and enhanced capabilities of automated vehicle systems will enable conditionally and highly automated vehicle systems (SAE level 3 and 4) in the near future. Possible transitions of control between driver and automation including handovers of the dynamic driving task to the driver will pose particular challenges. Several recent accidents show that understanding, exploring, designing, and testing these complex socio-technical systems not only in normal conditions, but especially at system limits and system failures is not only of scientific interest, but a matter of life and death. In the Confidence Horizon concept, the capabilities of the driver are continuously compared with those of the automated subsystem, resulting in two horizons: First, the technical subsystem's confidence in its own ability to safely control the vehicle, and second, the technical subsystem's confidence in the driver's ability to take over control. This allows to quickly identify whether transitions between different levels of automation are safe, whether a balanced control distribution is given, or whether, when and how a minimum risk maneuver may be necessary. The concept can thus serve as a first approach to describe, visualize and implement possible cooperation between users and automated vehicles. In this way, future highly and cooperatively automated vehicles could be improved by revealing safety-critical transitions between driver and vehicle at an early stage. This paper first describes the confidence horizon concept and then presents a first implementation.

Nicolas Herzberger, Marcel Usai, Frank Flemisch

Conference Proceedings

Meeting User Needs in Vehicle Automation

This paper gives an overview of the results of the German national project AutoAkzept. The objective of the project was to develop solutions for the design of automated vehicles that promote the development of trust and thus acceptance for connected, cooperative, and automated mobility by reducing or even preventing subjective uncertainties and associated negative experiences. To this end, AutoAkzept developed technological building blocks for the assessment of activities and states of users of automated vehicles, the creation and application of individual user profiles for the optimization of system adaptation to users as well as strategies for adapting the behavior of automated vehicles in terms of information transfer, interior set-up, routing, and driving style selection. In developing these solutions, the project focused on the essential needs of users of automated systems. These needs should be considered in the conception and design of automated vehicles as well as in their operational use.

Uwe Drewitz, Klas Arne Ihme, Michael Oehl, Franziska Hartwich, Cornelia Hollander, Rick Vosswinkel, Robert Ritschel, Juliane Maerker, Helge Ludwig, Victor Fäßler, Alexander Trende, Daniela Johannmeyer, Yvonne Brück, Mathias Niedling

Conference Proceedings

Identifying Lane Changes Automatically using the GPS Sensors of Portable Devices

Mobile applications that provide GPS-based route navigation advice or driver diagnostics are gaining popularity. However, these applications currently do not have knowledge of whether the driver is performing a lane change. Having such information may prove valuable to individual drivers (e.g., to provide more specific navigation instructions) or road authorities (e.g., knowledge of lane change hotspots may inform road design). The present study aimed to assess the accuracy of lane change recognition algorithms that rely solely on mobile GPS sensor input. Three trips on Dutch highways, totaling 158 km of driving, were performed while carrying two smartphones (Huawei P20, Samsung Galaxy S9), a GPS-equipped GoPro Max, and a USB GPS receiver (GlobalSat BU343-s4). The timestamps of all 215 lane changes were manually extracted from the forward-facing GoPro camera footage, and used as ground truth. After connecting the GPS trajectories to the road using Mapbox Map Matching API (2022), lane changes were identified based on the exceedance of a lateral translation threshold in set time windows. Different thresholds and window sizes were tested for their ability to discriminate between a pool of lane change segments and an equally-sized pool of no-lane-change segments. The overall accuracy of the lane-change classification was found to be 90%. The method appears promising for highway engineering and traffic behavior research that use floating car data, but there may be limited applicability to real-time advisory systems due to the occasional occurrence of false positives.

Tom Driessen, Lokin Prasad, Pavlo Bazilinskyy, Joost De Winter

Conference Proceedings

Driving simulator study for the effects of autonomous vehicles on drivers behaviour under car-following conditions

Research on autonomous vehicles has shown their high potential for reducing traffic congestion and emissions, as well as improving road accessibility and driving safety. Despite several contributions in the field, few studies have examined the impact that the presence of autonomous vehicles might have on conventional vehicle drivers in the mixed traffic flows that will characterize the transition from conventional vehicles to autonomous vehicles. The overall goal of this study is to provide new insights into the impact of autonomous vehicles on the behavior of following human drivers under car-following conditions. To achieve this goal, a driving simulator study was conducted, and the behavioral changes of forty drivers were examined by comparing their driving performance under three different car-following configurations, where the lead vehicle was: i) a recognizable (Marked) Autonomous Vehicle (AVM); ii) an unrecognizable Autonomous Vehicle (AV); iii) a Conventional Vehicle (CV). Finally, for each car-following configuration, different conditions were examined: ordinary conditions (constant speeds of the leading vehicle) and braking conditions. The results indicated that, under ordinary conditions, poorer safety performance was observed in the CV configuration. Conversely, under braking conditions, the safest performances were demonstrated in the CV configuration, while shorter response times were recorded in the AVM configuration. The study's findings contribute significantly to our understanding of human driving behavior in the car-following state in a mixed traffic flow.

Alessandro Calvi, Fabrizio D'Amico, Chiara Ferrante, Gaia Calcaterra

Conference Proceedings

Overall effects of non-driving related activities’ characteristics on takeover performance in the context of SAE Level 3: A meta-analysis

Since users of Level 3 driving automation systems may engage in non-driving related activities, it is of interest to investigate effects of non-driving related activities on traffic safety. The current meta-analysis aims at estimating non-driving related activities’ effects on takeover behavior based on theory and empirical findings on task switching and modality shifting. Results indicate that takeover time increases after non-driving related activities that (1) physically require the user to free his/her hands from the respective activity before takeover, (2) obstruct concurrent visual perception of the driving environment, (3) are dissimilar to the driving task in terms of required cognitive processing modules.

Elisabeth Shi, Klaus Bengler

Conference Proceedings

Development of empathic autonomous vehicles through understanding the passenger’s emotional state

Emotion recognition is crucial to increase user acceptance in autonomous driving. SUaaVE project aims to formulate ALFRED, defined as the human-centered artificial intelligence to humanize the vehicle actions by estimating the emotions felt by the passengers and managing preventive or corrective actions, providing tailored support. This paper presents the development of an emotional model able to estimate the values of valence (how negative or positive a stimulus is) and arousal (the level of excitement) from the analysis of physiological signals. The model has been validated with an experimental test simulating different driving scenarios of autonomous vehicles. The results found that driving mode can influence the emotional state felt by the passengers. Further exploration of this emotional model is therefore advised to detect on board experiences and to lead to new applications in the framework of empathic vehicles.

Nicolás Palomares, Juan Manuel Belda-Lois, Begoña Mateo, Sofía Iranzo, Javier Silva, Víctor De Nalda-Tárrega, Jose Laparra, Jose Solaz

Conference Proceedings

Detection of Discomfort in Autonomous Driving via Stochastic Approximation

One of the most important goals in the field of autonomous driving development is to make the experience for the passenger as pleasant and comfortable as possible. In addition to traditional influence factors on passenger comfort, new aspects arise due to the transfer of control from the human to the vehicle. Some of these are apparent safety, motion sickness, user preferences regarding driving style and information needs. Ideally, the vehicle and the passenger should form a team, whereby the vehicle should be able to detect and predict situations of discomfort in real time and take measures accordingly. This requires not only the continuous monitoring of the passengers state but also the implementation of adequate mathematical models. To investigate how this teaming of human and automated agents can be shaped in the most effective way is a key topic of the Collaborative Research Center “Hybrid Societies (https://hybrid-societies.org/). In this framework, driving simulator data from the previous project “KomfoPilot” (https://bit.ly/komfopilot) is re-analyzed using new mathematical models. The participants in the study completed several automated drives and reported continuously situations of discomfort using a handset control. Sensor data was collected simultaneously using eye tracking glasses, a smart band, seat pressure sensors and video cameras for motion and face tracking. While pupil diameter, heart rate, interblink intervals, skin conductance and head movement have already been identified as potential single indicators of discomfort, it is now necessary to integrate these and other findings of the project into a functional multivariate model. In this paper, we investigate how such a model can be shaped to offer high prediction accuracy and viable practical implementation. The first important question – which arises from the heterogeneity of the participants – is whether to work with training data on an individual or aggregated level. We compare both possibilities by applying techniques from the field of stochastic approximation for clustering of the chosen training set and subsequent classification of the test data. In the case of an individual model for each participant, we furthermore divide the participants into subgroups and analyze whether there is a connection between the physiological reactions of a passenger and his/her demographic characteristics and driving experience. Finally, we discuss the potential of our method as a reliable prediction model as well as implications for future driving simulator studies and related research.

Florian Kretzschmar, Matthias Beggiato, Alois Pichler

Conference Proceedings

The public requirements on interior facilities of highly automated vehicles in China

Under highly automated driving, it is possible for drivers to work, entertain and relax in the vehicles. These non-driving related activities bring new challenges in designing interior facilities of highly automated vehicles. It is promising to improve highly automated vehicles’ acceptance and user experience by developing interior facilities based on drivers’ needs. This study adopted an online questionnaire to explore the public requirements on interior facilities of highly automated vehicles in China. Moreover, the needs of different groups were analyzed and compared for a detailed understanding of the effects of various individual characteristics. The results indicated that people expected to communicate with the automated driving systems and were unwilling to lose their right to control the vehicle completely. In addition, individual characteristics significantly affected the requirements. This study contributes to understanding the public requirements on interior facilities and improving the acceptance of highly automated vehicles.

Qingkun Li, Zhenyuan Wang, Wenjun Wang, Chao Zeng, Weimin Liu, Jiawei Mu, Quan Yuan, Bo Cheng

Conference Proceedings

Evaluation of the Seating Environment of an Autonomous Taxi on User Needs – An Online Survey Investigation

In the UNICARagil project, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, four modular autonomous vehicle concepts are de-veloped. The paper deals with an autonomous taxi designed for ride sharing and non-driving tasks and activities. An online-based survey is conducted to evaluate integrated components and features of the seating environment under different conditions of use. The expectations, preferences and wishes of 181 survey par-ticipants are compared with the aspects and features to be offered in the auto-TAXI. The results show that using the equipment elements of the seating envi-ronment depends on various influencing factors such as trip duration, type of trip, privacy and activity. In general, users' expectations of the autoTAXI's equipment elements are met.

Manuel Kipp, Caroline Guo, Klaus Bengler

Conference Proceedings

Take a Seat! – Passengers’ Perceived Risk and Driving Behavior Preferences During Automated Driving in Urban Mixed Traffic Depending on the Seating Position

In future urban mixed traffic, passengers of highly automated vehicles (HAVs; SAE Level 4) will observe from a passive position how the automated system resolves space-sharing conflicts with crossing vulnerable road users (VRUs) at junctions. Since passengers are no longer required to intervene in the driving task but can choose any seat in the automated vehicle, we investigated the effects of seating position on passengers' driving behavior preferences and perceived risk in this space-sharing conflict. In a stationary driving simulator study, we varied HAV speed, VRU type, VRU crossing direction, and the passenger’s seating position (driver’s seat, passenger seat). During each VRU interaction, participants triggered the HAV’s braking maneuver by pressing a button, at (a) a point they considered ideal and (b) at the last acceptable braking onset they considered safe enough for the HAV to stop at the stop line. After each trial, participants rated perceived risk on an 8-point scale. We also analyzed the distance of the HAV from the VRU and the time-to-collision with the VRU at braking onset. Data were collected from 30 participants. The results show that seating position has no effect on passengers' perceived risk or on their preferred braking onset timing. Instead, passengers aimed to avoid risk experiences when interacting with the VRU, regardless of the seat position. These results are consistent with previous studies.

Vanessa Stange, Sarah Helweg, Mark Vollrath

Conference Proceedings

Experimental Setup for Assessing Drivers’ Experiences of Reclined Sitting Posture in Automated Vehicles

Highly automated vehicles are opening new opportunities for alternative sitting postures, such as the reclined posture, when drivers disengage from conventional driving tasks. This paper presents an experimental setup to assess drivers’ experiences of the reclined sitting posture and the human machine interfaces (HMI) for transitions between upright and reclined modes, and between manual and automated driving modes. The method used to develop the setup consisted of identifying the necessary equipment for developing the experimental setup, defining the preparation and execution of the experimental setup, and collecting and analysing feedback from eight human factors experts. The experimental setup consisted of four steps: practicalities, preparations, execution, and data collection methods. Also, six aspects must be considered when assessing user experiences in a dynamic test: (1) recruiting appropriate participants, (2) providing consistent tasks, (3) providing adequate time constraints, (4) avoiding social influences, (5) utilizing appropriate data collections methods, (6) and carrying out a pilot study.

Anna-Lisa Osvalder, Melina Makris

Conference Proceedings

Construction of models for predicting arousal level in advance based on features of face images

Background and PurposeSleepiness is a major factor in accidents or errors. Even in these days of promoting system automation, users should monitor the state of the autonomous system or take over in the event of an emergency. Thus, it is important for systems to understand user’s arousal level and manage user’s arousal level appropriately. In recent years, a method for maintaining arousal levels has been proposed by using artificial intelligent agents to converse with the user. The interaction method used by such a system is considered to be a more natural way to maintain arousal level than the conventional method of using stimulation such as a beep sound. Therefore, we anticipate realizing a system that not only detects sleepiness and responds to it reactively, but also predicts a decreasing arousal level in advance and responds to it proactively. In this study, aiming at realizing such a system, we attempt to construct a model to predict decreasing arousal levels in advance. We think this will lead to the optimization of system interaction. In the assessment of arousal level, there is a method to assess a user’s arousal level in five levels based on facial expression by trained raters. Therefore, we assumed to construct a model predicting the five stages of arousal level in the method based on features of face images. MethodIn the experiment to obtain data for model construction, autonomous driving was assumed as an example of an autonomous system. Participants monitored autonomous driving for an hour. Participants could only change lanes by pressing a button, and all other operations were handled by the autonomous system. During the task, participants responded to the arousal level in five levels by pressing a button every 30 seconds. In addition, participant’s face images were recorded at 60 Hz. Three male and three female participants took part in the experiments, and each participant completed the task three times. From face images, we used features of a texture distribution by Local Binary Patterns Histogram (LBPH) and features obtained by embedding using FaceNet for model construction. Using these features and subjective assessment of arousal level, we constructed a model to predict future arousal level in five levels by machine learning. ResultsThe bias of the output value was less when using a neural network than when using random forest or support vector machine. The accuracies of prediction arousal level after 30 seconds from the current features are around 35% for learning individual data. Although the accuracies decrease as the target time for prediction became far away from the present time, the results up to 120 seconds showed that the accuracy was greater than 30% and the rate of the case where the deviation between predicted and actual values is less than one was greater than 60%, which means that it is possible to suppress the cases where large deviations occur. We think that the model is expected to be used in a proactive system that predicts and responds to decreases in arousal levels in advance.

Yuki Mekata, Miwa Nakanishi

Conference Proceedings

Effectiveness of Bollards in Deterring Pedestrians from Running into the Roadway

Bollards are poles that are placed at the intersection of a roadway and a sidewalk to prevent vehicles from entering. They are mainly installed to alert motorists and are rarely used to control pedestrians. However, given their morphological characteristics, bollards should be able to play a role in physically and psychologically controlling pedestrian behavior.This study focuses on the deterrent effect of bollards on pedestrians, preventing them from running into the roadway. We have developed an experimental method to reproduce situations where people are likely to run into the roadway using immersive virtual environment technology. It was difficult to quantitatively analyze the behavioral characteristics of such situations using conventional methods. In addition, we conducted experiments on subjects using the developed experimental method to verify the effect of linearly placed bollards on pedestrians to deter them from running into the roadway. This study aims to obtain knowledge that will help improve the environment and prevent accidents caused by pedestrians walking into the roadway.A total of ten students (seven men and three women) participated in the experiment. The subject experienced the virtual environment through the head-mounted display (HMD). Wireless intercommunication allows the subject to move freely in the virtual environment, and the specification of the experimental route can be changed according to the subject's location information. The experimental route consisted of a series of bends and T-intersections. The area at the end of the T-intersection was divided into a sidewalk and a roadway. A red ball moving at 1.7m/s was presented in this experimental route. The ball randomly entered or did not enter the roadway beyond the T-intersection. We had subjects chase a red ball and induced them to run into the roadway.A total of 16 conditions were set by combining four variables: the presence of bollards (bollards or no bollards), the presence of a motorcycle (motorcycle or no motorcycle), a ball rolling into the roadway (entry, no entry), and ball height (0.1m, 1.4m). We analyzed the change in speed and location information when the subjects ran into the roadway. In analyzing the experimental data, three analysis items were defined: "maximum deceleration," which indicates the degree of deceleration in front of the bollard, "deceleration point," which is the distance between the bollard and the position where the maximum deceleration occurred, and "safety check rate," which is the rate of head movement to pay attention to the surroundings. As a result of the verification, the following findings were obtained. The linear arrangement of bollards between the roadway and the sidewalk reduces the speed of movement in the direction of running from the sidewalk onto the roadway. The preceding effect was more strongly confirmed in the group of subjects who did not run onto the roadway. These results suggest that it is possible to encourage people to slow down by making the bollards visible from a distance.

Takahisa Nakamura, Yohsuke Yoshioka

Conference Proceedings

Crowdsourced Assessment of 227 Text-Based eHMIs for a Crossing Scenario

Future automated vehicles may be equipped with external human-machine interfaces (eHMIs) capable of signaling whether pedestrians can cross the road. Industry and academia have proposed a variety of eHMIs featuring a text message. An eHMI message can refer to the action to be performed by the pedestrian (egocentric message) or the automated vehicle (allocentric message). Currently, there is no consensus on the correct phrasing of the text message. We created 227 eHMIs based on text-based eHMIs observed in the literature. A crowdsourcing experiment (N = 1438) was performed with images depicting an automated vehicle equipped with an eHMI on the front bumper. The participants indicated whether they would (not) cross the road, and response times were recorded. Egocentric messages were found to be more compelling for participants to (not) cross than allocentric messages. Furthermore, Spanish-speaking participants found Spanish eHMIs more compelling than English eHMIs. Finally, it was established that some eHMI texts should be avoided, as signified by low compellingness, long responses, and high inter-subject variability.

Pavlo Bazilinskyy, Dimitra Sodou, Joost De Winter

Conference Proceedings

Pedestrians’ Crossing Decisions While Interacting with Automated Vehicles – Insights from a Longitudinal Study

The decisions of pedestrians when crossing in front of automated vehicles (AVs) have been studied under the usage of external human machine interfaces (eHMIs) as explicit means of communication between AVs and other road users. Long-term effects of AV and eHMI exposure on pedestrians’ crossing decisions have not yet been intensively researched. Therefore, a longitudinal study with three sessions and two eHMI designs was conducted in a controlled field environment with 21 participants. A participant’s decision to cross in front of an AV was continuously measured using a hand-held device whose button was pressed when the participant felt safe to cross. Findings show that with increasing experience, pedestrians’ perceived safety to cross at close distances to a yielding AV increases when the AV is equipped with an eHMI displaying the vehicle’s status, perception and yielding intention. We conclude that when interacting with AVs, pedestrians' perceived safety benefits from eHMIs whose impact depends on pedestrians' experience.

Philip Joisten, Nina Theobald, Bettina Abendroth

Conference Proceedings

Visual dictionary of human action in vehicular environment using computer vision

Every human behavior and actions can be divided in small sub-actions and attributes. Some of these sub-actions and attributes contain visually semantic meanings to human. We call the ensemble of them as visual dictionary. The visual dictionaries help to create an action like how words from dictionary helps to create sentences. In this work, we demonstrate the effectiveness of the visual dictionary by analyzing driver behavior inside the vehicle. We take the primary driving behavior which includes two hands on the wheel and 56 secondary behaviors that include talking over handheld phone, eating sandwich, drinking from bottle, smoking, reaching for objects, and dancing. Finally, we demonstrate how each of these dictionary elements can be automatically processed from videos using computer vision.

Abhijit Sarkar

Conference Proceedings

Acceptance of app based interaction between automated micro vehicles (AMV) and their users

In the current paradigm of rapid urban growth and with the growing number of daily delivered goods, it is indispensable to develop new mobility solutions, ensuring sustainable, safe, and reliable inner-city logistics. This paper examined Duck-Train, an automated, electric Follow-Me micro vehicle concept (Follow-Me AMV). More specifically, we took a closer look at the communication between the vehicles and their users.We created an app prototype to enable potential users to interact with AMVs and initiate maneuvers. Afterward, we conducted a bilingual (German and Turkish) online survey (N = 202) containing four interaction tasks. After solving the tasks via the survey-integrated prototype, participants were asked to evaluate the app.Data were analyzed regarding the interface acceptance, the influence of the queried factors on acceptance, and the moderating effect of culture. The relationship between factors was examined using structural equation modeling (SEM). Results show that the app was overall well assessed. Moreover, acceptance of interaction concepts for in traffic communication is, on the one hand, affected by the interfaces' perceived usefulness, the hedonic motivation, and the users' trust in the system. On the other hand, user characteristics also influence the evaluation.

Vivian Lotz, Eva-Maria Schomakers, Martina Ziefle

Conference Proceedings

A Primer on the Human Readiness Level Scale (ANSI/HFES 400-2021)

The Human Readiness Level (HRL) Scale is a simple 9-level scale for evaluating, tracking, and communicating the readiness of a technology for safe and effective human use. It is modeled after the well-established Technology Readiness Level (TRL) framework that is used throughout the government and industry to communicate the maturity of a technology and to support decision making about technology acquisition. The TRL framework, however, does not consider the technology’s readiness for human use. As human error is implicated in 60-90% of incidents and accidents across a range of domains, it is critical to consider a technology’s human readiness alongside its technological maturity. The HRL scale was developed to address this need and to complement and supplement the TRL. In 2019, Drs. See (Sandia National Laboratories) and Handley (HFES Science Policy Fellow; Old Dominion University) formed a working group of practitioners across DoD, industry, and academia to mature the HRL concept; evaluate its usability, reliability, and validity; and develop a standard. The resulting ANSI/HFES 400-2021 Standard defines the HRL scale and provides guidance on how to apply them within a system development process. The standard provides questions to guide evaluation activities, with exit criteria and examples of the supporting evidence required to progress from one level to the next. The HRLs map on to three phases of the development process: Basic Research and Development (HRL 1-3), Technology Demonstrations (HRL 4-6), and Full-Scale Testing, Production, and Deployment (HRL 7-9):HRL 1: Basic principles for human characteristics, performance, and behavior observed and reportedHRL 2: Human-centered concepts, applications, and guidelines definedHRL 3: Human-centered requirements to support human performance and human-technology interactions establishedHRL 4: Modeling, part-task testing, and trade studies of human systems design concepts and applications completedHRL 5: Human-centered evaluation of prototypes in mission relevant part-task simulations completed to inform designHRL 6: Human systems design fully matured and demonstrated in a relevant high-fidelity, simulated environment or actual environmentHRL 7: Human systems design fully tested and verified in operational environment with system hardware and software and representative usersHRL 8: Human systems design fully tested, verified, and approved in mission operations, using completed system hardware and software and representative usersHRL 9: System successfully used in operations across the operational envelope with systematic monitoring of human system performance The proposed presentation is part of an HFES initiative to socialize HRLs within the government, industry, and academia. The presentation will provide concrete examples drawn from the transportation sector to illustrate how HRLs can be applied throughout a human systems integration process.ReferencesHFES/ANSI (2021). Human Readiness Level Scale in the System Development Process (ANSI/HFES 400-2021). Retrieved from https://www.hfes.org/publications/technical-standardsSalazar, G., See, J. E., Handley, H. A., & Craft, R. (2020, December). Understanding human readiness levels. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting (Vol. 64, No. 1, pp. 1765-1769). Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.See, J. E. (2021). Human Readiness Levels Explained. Ergonomics in Design, 10648046211017410.

Kelly Steelman, Holly Handley

Conference Proceedings

Systematic and user-oriented development of physical interface for vehicle ultrafast charging

Status Quo: Electric vehicles currently available on the market have a real maximum range of approx. 400 - 500 km at low temperatures (source: Electric Vehicle Database). The shortest charging time of an electric vehicle is currently approx. 22 min. to charge the vehicle battery with max. 270KW from 5% to 80% (source: PAG).Problem: The range and the time required to refill the energy storage of electric vehicles are not yet as long as those of vehicles powered by internal combustion engines. For the user, these deficits are associated with a loss of comfort, especially on long-distance journeys.Method of Resolution: A promising approach is to significantly reduce the charging time by increasing the charging power with simultaneous and efficient dissipation of the waste heat. Technically, this is to be implemented with a vehicle-external cooling fluid, which is provided by the charging infrastructure. The question arises how the novel thermal interface then necessary can be physically integrated into the charging process, into the vehicle and into the charging infrastructure with special consideration of user requirements. The paper presents the design of three prototype connectors, using the standardized product development method described in VDI 2221. Requirements are defined from the analysis of the competitive environment and the required integration of a thermal interface. On the one hand, the focus lies on the technical and physical requirements related to the electrical and thermal power transmission, on the other hand, the human-product requirements related to the physical use are assigned special importance. For the conception, the derivation of Function Structures and subsequently the identification of all sub-functions serves as an essential basis. Partial functions of the interface that have proven themselves in the electrical power transmission of the standardized CCS interface (source: IEC 62196-3 / SAE J1772) are adopted. Essentially, the sub-functions "leakage-free coupling / decoupling", "overcoming closing resistances" and "user-friendly connector handling" are identified as design-critical. By defining and selecting suitable versions of the sub-functions, three interface concepts are systematically derived and evaluated against each other in test person studies. The result shows that vehicle ultrafast charging with electrical and thermal power transfer and with only one connector is possible for all users and all vehicle types from an ergonomic point of view. A test person study shows that the users prefer the handling of the new interface compared to the charging standard currently used on the market and a separate, hydraulic power transmission.

Alexander Mueller, Simon Buck, Fabian Schmiel, Lampros Tsolakidis

Conference Proceedings

Human factors and political price regulations to enhance electric vehicle miles traveled

A shift to electric vehicles is necessary for transport decarbonization and requires the consideration of human factors in the design of political regulations. By applying the Theory of Planned Behavior this research identifies key motivational determinants of the decision to state a higher share of electric vehicle miles traveled. In a stated adaptation experiment, respondents were confronted with new price regulations and could adopt all mobility tools in their household, e.g. include an electric vehicle, and specify the annual vehicle miles traveled. The results of a structural equation model on data of 424 respondents show that the stated proportion of electric vehicle miles traveled is higher with a person’s greater intention to buy an electric vehicle, while the intention itself is predicted by a person’s attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control of buying an electric vehicle.

Margarita Gutjar, Matthias Kowald

Conference Proceedings

New Cars on the Block - The Impact of Public Charging Infrastructure on BEV Ownership

To slow climate change down, a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is crucial. Part of the solution could be the electrification of cars, but market penetration is progressing slowly so far. It is still unclear to what extent specific user groups, e.g., without private parking/charging space, are willing to buy BEV in the long term. The present study is a first step to holistically measure the existing findings on perceived barriers in terms of their importance and to transfer them into a vehicle ownership model. In a two-stage approach, potential factors influencing the purchase decision were first ranked (MaxDiff), followed by a focus on some of the most relevant factors and a more precise measurement in decision simulations (ACBC). Even though this study is only an intermediate step towards a holistic model, the results show that building charging infrastructure is important for the purchase decision but not a panacea, as vehicle parameters such as range or acquisition costs are equally or more important. Furthermore, it becomes evident that a dependence on public charging infrastructure alone is seen more negatively for the purchase of an e-vehicle than the use of gas stations for vehicles with combustion engines, which leads to the conclusion that market penetration among users without the possibility of charging at home or at work will be slow or even non-existent given the current state of technology.

Ralf Philipsen, Hannah Biermann, Martina Ziefle

Conference Proceedings

Micromobility: Challenges and prospects for Electric Mobility Devices (EMDs) in Hong Kong

In recent years, electric mobility devices (EMDs) have become popular in major cities across the globe. Whereas many cities have embraced and integrated this new form of urban green mobility into their public transport systems, in Hong Kong, the growing popularity of EMDs is being met with growing public and government concern about their safety. To address these concerns, the government proposed the EMD regulatory framework to manage their use in such a densely populated and mountainous city. The judicial definition of EMD in the current Hong Kong Road Traffic Ordinance (Cap. 374) considers devices such as unicycles, e-scooters, hoverboards, and electric bicycles as motor vehicles that are prohibited on the roadways, footpaths, and street flex zones. Referring to the transport review of the Hong Kong Legislative Council Panel conducted on June 19, 2020, in this study, we examine the costs and benefits of using EMDs in such a densely populated city. Furthermore, we argue that less populous outlying islands could offer more suitable trial locations to integrate these innovative “first-last mile” micro vehicles. This article contributes to the existing EMD body of knowledge by highlighting the benefits and challenges with specific emphasis on Hong Kong’s EMD proposed framework.

Richard Lukenge, Kin Wai Michael Siu, Sylvia Liu, Zi Yang

Conference Proceedings

Passengers’ perception on Bus Rapid Transit access: Case study of Ikorodu-Mile 12 corridor of Lagos State, Nigeria

The Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system is a transport infrastructure that has grown tremendously among developing countries, including Africa. However, the effectiveness of such a transport system needs an evaluation from the users' perception. Access to a transportation system is an important factor in measuring the effectiveness of a transport system. Using Ikorodu-Mile12 corridor as a case study, this study examined the commuters' perception on the level of access to Lagos BRT to evaluate its effectiveness. The research employed a case study approach with quantitative analysis methods to explore the commuter's perception using dimensions of accessibility, affordability, availability, acceptability and adequacy. A total of 343 questionnaires were sampled using the accidental strategy at bus stops and inside neighborhoods of the study area at a distance of 400m, 800m, and 1200m from BRT bus stops. The results revealed that more than half of the respondents are satisfied with BRT service affordability, accessibility and adequacy. The system is perceived to be satisfactory but needs improvement on bus service frequency, service information and staff attitude.Keywords: Access, Acceptability, Accessibility, Affordability, Adequacy, BRT, Neighborhood, Public transport

Oriyomi Akinyemi, Oluwole Soyinka

Conference Proceedings

User experience of an automated on-demand shuttle service in public transportation

Autonomously driving shuttles with electric drive are envisioned to play a complementary role in public transportation in the near future. These vehicles may be used in scenarios where the use of full-sized busses is not technically feasible or economically viable. The compact size of automated shuttles offers the opportunity to operate in narrow streets, to connect suburban areas and to supply on-demand first and last mile services. The integration of an on-demand shuttle service into public transportation was tested and evaluated in a real-world trial in Hamburg-Bergedorf (Germany). A survey covering a large variety of aspects of user experience was created and distributed among users. Overall, the passengers were satisfied with the on-demand shuttle service and indicated that they could imagine to use such a service in the future. The field trial provided valuable insights and revealed the development potential of on-demand shuttle services in public transportation, motivating to continue research in this area.

Hüseyin Avsar, Michael Böhm, Annika Dreßler, Markus Fischer, Ulrike Steinberger

Conference Proceedings

Research Needs for a Quality Service Assessment Model of Inclusive Community Transport

IntroductionMobility is defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the freedom of movement from one place to another to conduct activities such as work, school, health, recreation, social or shopping. According to the 11th goal of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the UN at the 2015 General Assembly ”to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable”, accessible, reliable, safe, and comfortable transport services are required to serve multiple trip origins and destinations.This abstract discusses the research needs for the inclusion and equity in sustainable and resilient transport services by outlining the steps towards the development of a Quality Service Assessment Model (QSAM).Transport Services and Their Inherent Qualities Planning community transport services with people in mind requires the provision of a high-quality service embodying the following parameters:Inclusion – Inclusive transport should be open to all by offering accessible, safe, comfortable, and reliable services with human support along the travel chain.Equity – An equal distribution of resources by level and type of transport services should ensure that accessibility and affordability for everyone in the community are built into the operation.Sustainability - Every transport service should be sustainable, both in environmental and economic terms, by offering green travel modes, which are adaptable to critical situations and reliable in schedule adherence.Resilience – When disruptive incidences or accidents occur during travel, the transport system should have standby solutions to ensure trip completion under safe and comfortable conditions.The Quality Service Assessment Model The QSAM is built upon the dynamic interactions in forum discussions by the following three actors: the Users versus those of the Service Providers. The third actor group involved would be independent Stakeholders composed of experts in the fields of Mobility, Transportation, Human Factors, and Rehabilitation, and Academicians, as they will balance the idea exchanges, hopefully resulting in recommendations on service improvements towards the fulfillment of the users’ needs within the service providers’ budgetary and policy constraints.MethodologyMultidisciplinary research teams are required in carrying out the following steps of work:1. Classify targeted user groups according to their mobility limits;2. Define relevant travel scenarios supported by simulation tools;3. Collect qualitative data by means of Focus Groups discussions that address both the users’ perception of the service quality relative to their needs and expectations, versus the service providers’ awareness about gaps between the actual/planned services.4. Design new improvement solutions to fill the service gaps;5. Develop guidelines and recommendations towards inclusion and equity in sustainable and resilient transport services.ConclusionsThis QSAM aims at developing an approach for community transport services that match users’ needs and expectations. Each recommended solution should be designed and tested in a simulation environment. The resultant design guidelines together with policy recommendations, to be published and disseminated, should guide transport providers in achieving the targeted inclusive and equitable mobility in a sustainable and resilient community.

Anabela Simoes, Ling Suen

Conference Proceedings

Paving the Way to Autonomy – Influencing Factors for the Acceptance of Autonomously Operating Transportation Services in Rural Germany

The use of shared autonomous vehicles for transportation of goods as well as people could provide manifold benefits, for individuals, the environment, but also economically. Including potential users in the early stages of development and roll-out could facilitate a better acceptance of this new mobility concept. We investigated which factors are of particular interest for rural German citizens to promote technology acceptance. In an online survey of N = 139 participants, we found that especially trust in this technology, the attitude towards technology in general, as well as the importance of owning a car are key factors in the intention to use autonomous busses and services in the future.

Chantal Lidynia, Gian Luca Liehner, Martina Ziefle

Conference Proceedings

Mobility for everyone - a matrix-based approach to ensure accessibility of public transport

The target group of public transport is the general public. Public transport vehicles are the tools that are supposed to meet the mobility needs of a multifaceted population. A central difficulty for transport companies is to ensure accessibility for users with physical or cognitive restrictions. Disabled people, senior citizens and children are examples of groups that face a variety of challenges when they intend to use public transport. In this work a method to identify mobility barriers in a structured and replicable way is described. This method is based on two-dimensional matrices that relate detailed steps and subtasks of a passenger within his or her travel chain to functional components of health, based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) as described by the World Health Organization (WHO) (REHADAT, 2022). This matrix offers a systematic approach to understand and analyze the impact of various sets of restrictions on the accessibility and usability of defined modes of public transport.

Jan Grippenkoven, Alexandra König

Conference Proceedings

Global Changes to Driver Behavior Amid COVID-19

Road safety has remained a primary issue worldwide since the advent of automobiles. Significant advances have been made over the past several decades that have led to substantial improvements in safety. These advances include changes to the infrastructure, improvements to automobiles including ambient interfaces, connected and automated technology, and the availability of advanced cognitive training interventions. However, the recent spread of COVID-19 and subsequent social distancing measures, including travel bans and partial/complete lockdowns worldwide, has caused a dynamic shift in driver behavior, particularly those elements of behavior most associated with safety in general and crashes in specific. The current article aims to identify the critical changes to safe driver behavior in the post-COVID-19 era, reflect upon the behavioral factors driving this change, and suggest potential countermeasures to mitigate the unexpected change in driver behavior. The current review identified three crucial characteristics of post-pandemic driver behavior consisting of two negative trends, including 1) an increase in speeding behaviors, and 2) a greater propensity for distracted driving, and one positive trend 3) a reduction in congestion. A recent literature review shows that critical behavior changes include increased excessive speeding accompanied by a reduction in congestion. Further, distracted driving incidents are rising globally, while road crashes and mobility have declined. A preliminary analysis was conducted on open traffic data available from various locations. In Ontario, the number of speeding tickets issued from July 2020 to June 2021 was more than double the number of tickets issued in 2019. Additionally, an analysis of traffic tickets issued in New York State showed an increase in violations involving mobile phones and portable electronic devices in driving during the lockdown period in 2020. This unexpected shift in driver behavior necessitates the exploration of countermeasures that promote safer driver behavior. A discussion is presented along with future steps to tackle the negative trends in driver performance. The findings may have potential implications for policymakers, researchers, and the public.

Siby Samuel, Yovela Murzello

Conference Proceedings

Driver Situation Awareness and Cognitive Workload Effects of Novel Interchange Configurations and Associated Signage

In recent years, there has been a push towards use of grade-separated interchange (GSI) design to increase the overall capacity of intersections. The primary recommendation has been to resolve physical intersection constraints, including signalized left turns (in the U.S.). However, few, if any, investigations have made comparisons of driver situation awareness (SA) and cognitive workload in navigating novel grade-separated configurations and how to effectively implement associated signage to promote driver and traffic safety at different types of interchanges. To address this research gap, this study designed and conducted a driving simulation experiment to compare driver SA and cognitive workload in negotiating standard GSIs vs. novel GSI conditions, including contra-flow and quadrant configurations. All GSIs accommodated cross-traffic flows (north, south, east, and west) with four-lane roadways running in each direction through urban environments. The experiment also manipulated driver exposure to lane assignment (LA) signs (present and absent) and decision point (DP) signs with either overhead or right-side mount configurations. Forty-eight (48) licensed drivers participated in the experiment with each driver experiencing each GSI configuration in two trials for a total of six experiment trials for each participant (total of 288 trials). Participants in the experiment were divided into two groups according to age, including young (18-24 yrs.) and middle-aged (25-64 yrs.). The participants were also assigned to unique combinations of LA and DP signs (LA present + DP overhead; LA present + DP right-side mounted; LA absent + DP overhead; LA absent + DP right-side mounted), which remained consistent across GSI configurations for each driver. A high-fidelity and full-motion driving simulator was used in this study. During each trial, a driver was required to maintain posted speed limits and to achieve a pre-identified destination (“Garden St. North), as posted on the LA and DP signs. At specific stopping points in each test trial, driver SA was assessed using the Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT). The simulation scenario was frozen and drivers were posed with multiple queries addressing perception, comprehension, and projection of roadway conditions, vehicle and traffic states, and routes. Qualtrics survey software was used to present questions in an electronic format (using driver mobile devices) with all being randomly selected from a large pool of questions on the driving environment. Driver responses to queries were graded based on recordings of ground-truth simulator settings. That SAGAT output as a percentage of correct responses to all queries delivered at a simulation freeze with range [0,1]. Driver cognitive workload was assessed using the NASA Task Load index. The purpose of using this index was to determine the cognitive load imposed on drivers by the signage conditions in negotiating the various types of GSIs. At the beginning of the experiment, participants ranked the importance of six workload demand components, including mental, physical, temporal, performance, effort, and frustration for the driving task. At the end of each test trial, participants rated their perceived mental workload, according to the various demand components on a 100-point scale. The NASA TLX was calculated as the rank-weighted sum of the demand ratings scaled from 0 to 100 points. The results revealed driver SA and workload to significantly differ among GSIs. The standard and contra-flow GSIs were not different in driver SA but both were superior to the quadrant configuration. There were no significant differences in SA detected for the use (LA) and placement (DP) of signs. Regarding cognitive workload, results corresponded with SA findings, indicating the standard and contra-flow GSIs produced lower cognitive demands for drivers than the quadrant configuration. However, there were no significant differences in cognitive workload detected between the use and placement of signs. No interactions were detected among the GSI configurations and use and placement of signs for both SA and cognitive workload. In addition, correlation analyses were also applied to the SA and workload responses. Results indicated that SA and workload were complimentary in the context of the present experiment and they represent unique methods for assessing human behavior/performance in driving research.On the basis of these results, it was concluded that novel GSI designs influence driver SA and workload responses compared with standard interchanges; however, the presence of LA signs and positioning of DP signs does not appear to positively influence these responses. There is a need for additional empirical driving research to determine what aspects of GSI geometry and other traffic control devices may serve to promote comparable levels of driver SA and workload for new designs as compared to standard interchanges.

Yunmei Liu, Kihyun Pyo, Christopher Cunningham, Thomas Chase, David Kaber

Conference Proceedings

Investigating the Influence of Working Memory Processes on the Box Task combined with a Detection Response Task

The assessment of task demand caused by in-vehicle systems is crucial to avoid distraction while driving. The Box Task (BT) in combination with a tactile Detection Response Task (DRT) provides a method for measuring both visual-manual and cognitive secondary task demand. In the present study, the impact of cognitive, auditory-verbal tasks on the BT + DRT performance was investigated. Thirty-two participants had to perform an easy as well as a difficult version of an n-back task and a memory scanning task while simultaneously performing the BT + DRT. There was only a slight effect of cognitive task demand on the BT performance parameters, while the DRT proved to be highly sensitive to cognitive task demand. Therefore, it is assumed that the method is suitable for a differentiated measurement of task demand dimensions.

Daniel Trommler, Tina Morgenstern, Cornelia Hollander, Ines Karl, Frederik Naujoks, Josef Krems, Andreas Keinath

Conference Proceedings

Communication between drivers in a road bottleneck scenario

Background. With the introduction of automated vehicles, communication between automated and human road users is becoming increasingly important. In the future, automated vehicles must be able to recognize the behavioral intentions of conventional road users to react in accordance with expectations. In urban traffic, many everyday situations are not clearly regulated by traffic rules, requiring road users to negotiate with each other as to who has the right of way. An example of such a situation is a two-sided road bottleneck, in which the right of way is not explicitly defined, so that road users must negotiate with each other who will pass the bottleneck first. Since this scenario has been little studied so far, this work’s objective is a detailed description of the communication behavior of drivers when passing a two-sided bottleneck in order to gain insights for the development of driving strategies for autonomous vehicles. Method. Video material of 100 encounters between drivers at a two-sided road bottleneck in Braunschweig, Germany, was analyzed with respect to the type, order and duration of communication signals by manual annotation. Interrater reliability showed a moderate to almost perfect agreement for all collected variables, which included both explicit (e.g. hand gestures, turn signal, headlight flasher) and implicit (vehicle dynamics) communication signals. The identified communication signals were further combined into communication sequences to map the temporal sequence of communication signals used by the drivers. Additionally, drivers were studied in more detail with respect to their arrival and passing order.Results. The results indicate that explicit communication takes a minor role in the bottleneck scenario and that drivers primarily communicate by means of implicit signals. Furthermore, no informal rule could be found with respect to arrival and passing order. The results rather indicate that the passing order of the two drivers is related to the type and timing of the communication signals shown. In the observed encounters, a braking maneuver was the most frequently shown first behavioral change, which in most cases was shown by drivers who passed the bottleneck second. The data obtained also indicate that differences between drivers who pass first vs. second can be found especially with respect to offensive and defensive communication signals. Drivers who passed the bottleneck first, showed both more frequent and longer acceleration maneuvers as well as lateral movements toward the center of the road. Drivers who passed the bottleneck second, on the other hand, communicated both more frequently and longer using defensive signals, i.e. braking, coming to a stop, or initiating a lateral movement to the side of the road. Furthermore, characteristic communication sequences were found for both driver groups, namely drivers who pass first vs. second. A communication sequence, in which the narrow passage was passed at a constant speed, in some cases accompanied by a braking maneuver followed by an acceleration, was identified for drivers passing the narrow passage first. On the other hand, communication sequences in which the driver braked and drove to the side of the road, were associated with drivers who passed the bottleneck second. Conclusion. The communication sequences identified in this work provide initial guidance on what behavioral strategies might be used to signal a drivers’ intention to pass a two-sided bottleneck first or second. The results can thus be considered as a first basis for the realization of an expectation-compliant communication behavior of automated vehicles in a bottleneck scenario. One goal of future research should be to derive concrete and generalizable action recommendations for automated vehicles, so that the automation is able to cope with the scenario in an expectation-compliant manner by means of cooperative behavior strategies.

Katharina Schuler, Laura Quante, Caroline Schießl, Matthias Beggiato, Georg Jahn

Conference Proceedings

A theoretical framework for trust in automation considering its relationship to technology acceptance and its influencing factors

Automated cars are about to bring substantial changes in future mobility as the advantages regarding safety, comfort, and mobility independence are manifold. However, despite the many advantages, there are some factors which could affect the breakthrough of this technology. On the one hand, for automated driving to be viable, meeting technical and legal requirements is a fundamental and equally challenging prerequisite. On the other hand, user acceptance is a mandatory premise for technology adoption. But which factors are decisive for whether a technology is accepted or not? We propose that trust in automation (TiA) is a key influencing factor in terms of acceptance as the impact of trust on the acceptance of automated systems seems to be empirically proven. Nevertheless, acceptance models often either do not consider the concept of trust or seem to disagree as to whether trust has a direct and/or indirect influence on acceptance. Furthermore, influencing factors of trust are often neglected in such models. To provide a more holistic perspective on these issues, we conducted a structured literature review and analysis. Scientific papers which consider the relationship between TiA and acceptance as well as factors influencing trust in the context of automated driving were included. Based on the identified literature, we propose a theoretically derived framework on the relationship between TiA and technology acceptance as well as on influencing factors of TiA for the application context of automated driving. The framework is intended to serve as a complement to existing sound acceptance and trust models as well as a starting point for empirical verification of the theoretical assumptions in the course of further research.

Pia Sophie Charlotte Dautzenberg, Gudrun Mechthild Irmgard Voß

Conference Proceedings

Understanding drivers' trust after software malfunctions and cyber intrusions of digital displays in an automated car

The aim of this paper is to examine the effect of explicit (i.e., ransomware) and silent (i.e., no turn signals) automation failures on drivers’ reported levels of trust and perception of risk. In a driving simulator study, 38 participants rode in a conditionally automated vehicle in built-up areas and motorways. They all experienced both failures. Not only levels of trust decreased after experiencing the failures, especially after the explicit one, but also some of the scores were low. This could mean cyber-attacks lead to distrust in automated driving, rather than merely decreasing levels of trust. Participants also seemed to differentiate connected driving from automated driving in terms of perception of risk. These results are discussed in the context of cyber intrusions as well as long- and short-term trust.

William Payre, Jaume Perellomarch, Giedre Sabaliauskaite, Hesamaldin Jadidbonab, Siraj Shaikh, Hoang Nguyen, Stewart Birrell

Conference Proceedings

The interplay of personality traits with drivers’ gap acceptance

To support road safety and user acceptance, the interaction capabilities of automated vehicles (AVs) need to be intuitive and transparent. Therefore, established interaction capabilities of manual drivers need to be implemented in AVs. In manual driving, accepted time gaps (gap acceptance, GA) are frequently applied to coordinate interactions between traffic participants. Various driver characteristics, such as age, were shown to influence GA. However, little research considered the influence of driver personality traits on GA. Therefore, the current online study investigated the effect of drivers’ sensation seeking and big five personality traits (i.e., agreeableness, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, and neuroticism) on GA. The applied video material displayed an intersection scenario with approaching interaction partners encountering from the left of the drivers’ perspective. A total of 121 participants contributed to the study. The findings showed a significant effect for participants’ sensation seeking on GA. Participants scoring higher in sensation seeking accepted smaller time gaps resulting in riskier decisions for the turning maneuvers than participants scoring lower in sensation seeking. Moreover, the results revealed a significant difference in GA regarding participants’ agreeableness. Participants scoring higher in agreeableness indicated larger time gaps to initiate turning maneuvers (i.e., more cooperative interactions) than participants scoring lower in agreeableness. There was no effect for extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, and neuroticism on GA. To support the user acceptance of automated driving functions, differences in driving style preferences related to personal characteristics should be considered in AVs (e.g., by offering selectable driving style profiles).

Ann-Christin Hensch, Matthias Beggiato, Sarah Mandl, Anja Strobel, Josef Krems

Conference Proceedings

Assessing Drivers’ Trust in Automated Driving Systems: An Integrated Study

At present, the automatic driving system is accelerating the evolution from L2 assistant driving system to L5 with the advanced automatic driving function in full scenarios. The drivers’ trust in automated driving systems has been proved to be one of the most important factors that affect drivers’ acceptance of automated driving technology. It is also a primary determinant of understanding how to promote productive interaction between drivers and automated driving systems. This paper presents two mixed-method studies that combine demographic and experimental methodologies to assess trust in AVs. 1131 drivers with different driving experiences were investigated on their initial trust in AVs through an online questionnaire. Twenty-six participants evaluated dynamic trust in six sessions of varying road complexity in an L3 automated driving simulator. Data collected included subjective measures of trust, behavior, and physiological measures through ECG and GSR. The results show that drivers’ initial trust related to individuals’ disposition includes age, driving years, gender, driving experience, perceived risks, acceptance of new technology, and the perception of risk. As well as drivers’ initial learned trust depends on the understanding of AVs technology, driving capacity, and the experience of AVs. The dynamic trust changes with the understanding of AVs performance and the external environment. For higher-risk events such as pedestrians and obstacles, the audible reminder can effectively enhance drivers’ situational awareness and trust as a strong reminder to supplement the visual channel in automated driving systems. These findings provide an effective basis for further research and design related to improving the trust in AVs.

Yu Zhang, Yaling Zeng, Chongbin Li, Jing Huang, Liu Yang

Conference Proceedings

Driver Intention identification based on Vehicle Driving State and Driving Behavior Interaction

An intention identification method is proposed in this paper, which is based on vehicle running state and driving behavior interaction. The driving simulator experiment is designed to obtain vehicle driving time series data of lane keeping and lane changing. Based on the stage division of lane changing process, the lane changing intention stage can be obtained. It is found that the length of lane changing intention stage approximately obeys the normal distribution, and the length of left lane changing intention stage is greater than that of right lane changing. When exploring the influencing factors on the length of lane changing intention stage, it is found that the length of intention stage is approximately linearly correlated with the average speed of vehicles. Finally, based on the vehicle running state and intention stage, a continuous hidden Markov model based on Gaussian probability density function is established, which can effectively identify the driver's lane changing intention with high recognition accuracy and great real-time performance. The average accuracy of the model is 90%, the advanced time of left and right lane changing intention is 1.5s and 1.4s.

Zehong Wei, Lan Zhao, Yuanyuan Ren, Ran Yang, Xuelian Zheng, Zhimao Hu

Conference Proceedings

Attention and action preparation during lane change maneuvers: The role of irrelevant information

Safe driving behaviour during lane change is the function of selecting and processing task relevant cues from the ongoing driving environment; enabling the goal-directed preparatory process. Such preparatory information typically facilitates reaction time to the anticipated event. However, it is unclear how the additional information other than task specific cues from the driving environment act on preparatory processes while driving a car. We implemented a pre-cue paradigm in a simulated lane change task (LCT) to answer this question. In contrast to the standard paradigm, additional information was presented either just before the preparatory stimulus (pre-cue) or the target stimulus (pre-target) that was either congruent, incongruent, or neutral to the lane change direction. Reaction time and amplitudes of steering out and in angles (A1 and A2) were measured as dependent variables. Results showed that reaction time and steering in amplitude A2 were increased when the additional information was presented before the final target for intended action and similarly when the additional information presented in the same lane changed direction (congruent). Later one accounts for contingent attentional capture. To accommodate the entire pattern of results observed in the study, we tentatively suggest that any information which is not relevant for the intended action have considerable influence on attention and action preparation on the basis of the temporal and visuo-spatial positioning. A strong effect is found especially at the time of the final determination of the upcoming driving manoeuvre.

Nikita Rajendra Sharma, Jai Prakash Kushvah, Gerhard Rinkenauer

Conference Proceedings

Different feedback strategies: Evaluation of active vehicle motions in a multi-level system

Different levels of automation require distinct tasks of the driver. During partially automated driving, the driver has to supervise the system and the environment, whereas the driver can engage in non-driving related tasks during highly automated driving. With more aspects of the driving task being automated, the driver’s role becomes more passive. In the future, automated driving systems may combine several levels of automation. Thus, the driver’s tasks and responsibilities vary in a multi-level automated driving vehicle. To support drivers in their tasks, the automated vehicle should provide comprehensible and perceptible feedback. In addition, automated driving systems should provide information about the system’s state, its intentions and transitions transparently to assist the drivers´ mode awareness. Prior research has mainly focused on information that is presented visually. However, previous studies found that vestibular feedback also has a positive effect on mode awareness. Thus, based on multiple resource theory, we examined the effect of different feedback strategies including vestibular feedback on mode awareness and system comprehension in the context of automated driving.A real driving study was conducted on a German highway, covering approximately 130 km per participant. Therefore, a prototype was used, which performed lateral and longitudinal vehicle guidance. In a between-design, a total of N = 36 participants were randomly assigned to one of two feedback strategies. Both strategies consisted of visual-auditory feedback, with one concept including additional active vehicle motions in partially automated driving. The vestibular feedback consisted of pitch and roll motions. Pitch motions indicated a detected preceding vehicle, whereas roll motions announced lane changes. Participants experienced manual, partially and highly automated driving as well as transitions between these levels. In two thirds of the cases the automated vehicle decelerated slowly at the end of the test drive, simulating a system failure. Finally, trust, acceptance and mode awareness were collected through several questionnaires.Statistical analysis revealed that the strategy with vestibular feedback in partially automated driving generated significantly more trust and was perceived more reliable. Although no significant differences between the strategies were found for acceptability, both were assessed as highly acceptable and acceptance ratings increased over time. Concerning mode awareness, no group differences were found for function awareness and monitoring behavior. However, a significant effect indicated that additional active vehicle motions were perceived as more supportive in complex situations. Further results exhibited that regardless of the strategy, highly automated driving led to significantly more function awareness than partially automated driving.In summary, these results show that the feedback strategy with different designs for partially and highly automated driving can increase the reliability of the automated vehicle. Consistent with the literature, results also indicate that a feedback strategy with additional active vehicle motions in partially automated driving increases trust in automation. Thus, this study suggests that different designs for partially and highly automated driving, including additional vestibular feedback, opens upa new possibility to support drivers in their tasks.

Pia Wald, Niklas Henreich, Martin Albert, Johannes Ossig, Klaus Bengler

Conference Proceedings

Measurement and Analysis of Vibration Transmissibility through Tractor Seat

Tractor drivers often exposed to high-amplitude and low frequency vibrations that could impact the ride comfort. Tractor-terrain interaction emits vibrations that transmitted to the driver’s body through the seat-pan, mainly. In present study, the vibration transmissibility response (i.e. from the seat base to seat pan location) has been evaluated using Finite Element Method (FEM). Three dimensional model of the tractor seat was designed by considering the various seat elements (i.e. frame, sub-frame, cushion, Swing-arm, spring, damper, and roller) and their material properties (i.e. Density, Young’s modulus, Poisson’s Ratio) in SoildWorks 2014. Three different types of seat suspension systems of varying spring stiffness (0.3 kg/mm; 0.55 kg/mm; and 0.7 kg/mm) with damping coefficient of 1465.9 Ns/m has been considered to analyze transmissibility response. Seat cushion of Polyurethane (PU) light foam material with thickness of 54 mm; density of 68 kg/m³, seat backrest inclination of 12º with cushion thickness of 45 mm has been set uniform throughout the investigation. Vibration transmissibility responses were analyzed within the frequency range of 0-20 Hz at 0.5 m/s2 along the vertical direction. Tractor seat found to exhibit maximum transmissibility between 2 to 6 Hz frequency ranges. In addition, the seat suspension with spring stiffness of 0.55 kg/mm showed approximately 16% minimum vibration transmissibility compared to other suspension systems. In conclusion, the dominant frequency ranges found in the vicinity of natural frequency of various human body parts that may impact the ride comfort; and the spring stiffness has considerable effect on the vibration transmissibility.

Amandeep Singh, Siby Samuel, Ishbir Singh, Jagmeet Singh, Yash Kumar Dhabi, Chander Prakash

Conference Proceedings

Development and testing a drowsiness detector based on ECG sensors in steering wheel

Sleeping or drowsiness while driving contributes to human error, being one of the most relevant causes of traffic collisions and accidents in the world. Although it is foreseen that completely automated vehicles can reduce significantly these numbers, there will be a sequential incorporation of automated vehicles, from existing vehicles, level 0 or 1, to level 2 and level 3 of automation (according to SAE definition) in which the risk of drowsiness can persist or even increase. For this reason, reliable detection of drowsiness is one of the leading objectives in the development of new Advanced Driver Assistance systems. The main hypothesis in the present work is that the physical response in drivers can be indirectly measured via biophysical parameters, such as changes in heart variability (HRV), and that measurement can lead to early drowsiness detection. Following this principle, the main objective of this paper is to present the development a non-invasive system integrated in the vehicle steering wheel to detect the presence of somnolence while driving and validate it via KSS. The final purpose is to integrate the system in vehicles to create warnings or alarms for the driver to avoid accidents related with fatigue or drowsiness.

Jose Solaz, Jose Laparra, Hugo Silva, Knulp Rittmeyer, Nicolás Palomares

Conference Proceedings

Semi-Autonomous Vehicle Crashes: An Exploration of Contributing Factors

Advancements in semi-autonomous vehicles (SAVs) are amongst the most popular topics in transportation. Proponents of SAVs cite the potential for reducing crashes, roadway congestion, stressful commutes, and increasing independence for persons with disabilities. This enthusiasm is however tempered by crashes involving SAVs. Articles in the popular press cite limitations of the technology, however, crashes rarely have a single cause, and it is important to consider other possible factors. This paper explores the influence of several factors including how SAVs change the responsibility of the driver from operator to supervisor and why drivers are poorly equipped for this supervisory function. We discuss how the opacity of the vehicle’s operation, intentions, and internal states make it difficult for the operators to develop mental models of the systems that enable them to anticipate the automations’ actions. Drivers may instead rely on anthropomorphic reasoning to predict the system’s actions by evaluating how they would respond in a given situation. We explain why anthropomorphisms are problematic and, in some cases, increase crash risk. Finally, we review why drivers operate SAVs in violation of the Operational Design Domain limitations and the contributory role of drivers’ assumptions of the capabilities of SAV technology.

Molly C Mersinger, Alex Chaparro

Conference Proceedings

The use of Automated Traffic Enforcement methods by Abu Dhabi Police

The paper examines the use of three different automated traffic enforcement projects by Abu Dhabi Police, and their impact on traffic safety performance in terms of the number of traffic incidents and their resulting injuries. Dynamic speed management during adverse weather conditions, smart heavy vehicle management and automated tailgating enforcement were analyzed by taking into consideration the different traffic metrics associated with each project. All three enforcement systems proved to have positive results in terms of the number of traffic incidents and the injuries resulting from them.

Mohammed Al Eisaei, Saif Al Harthi, Abdulla Alghafli, Ahmed Al Zaidy

Conference Proceedings

Analysis of human perception models for motion sickness in autonomous driving

Autonomous vehicle technologies are rapidly growing and are expected to change transportation habits radically. Autonomous cars increase the likelihood of motion sickness by allowing everyone in the vehicle to become passengers and perform non-driving tasks such as reading, working, and socializing. Comfort is one of the critical factors in the acceptance of autonomous vehicles. This makes accurate estimation of motion sickness a necessity in the development stages of autonomous vehicles. The sensory conflict theory is a widely accepted theory that explains the mechanism of motion sickness. Computational models based on the sensory conflict theory are used to predict motion sickness and contain two main parts: a human perception model and a nonlinear fitting function to the subjective feeling of motion sickness. Models of the human perception, including the dynamics of the vestibular system, are used to calculate the difference between sensory inputs and the predicted motions in the brain, i.e. the conflict signal, which is the primary cause of motion sickness. One of the main limitations of motion sickness prediction is how to mathematically model human perception because of the complexity of the psychophysiological systems. The aim of this work is to implement and analyse different human perception modelling techniques, such as observer framework in the control theory and optimal estimator approach using Kalman filters, to evaluate their abilities to integrate with motion sickness prediction. In this study, the different human perception models are implemented and analysed using MATLAB / Simulink and the advantages, as well as disadvantages of the models, are discussed.

Ilhan Yunus, Fikri Farhan Witjaksono, Elif Naz Başokur, Jenny Jerrelind, Lars Drugge

Conference Proceedings

PersonalAIzation - Exploring concepts and guidelines for AI-driven personalization of in-car HMIs in fully automated vehicles

The role of the driver changes to that of a passenger in autonomous cars. Thus, the vehicle interior transforms from a cockpit into a multimedia station and workspace. This work explores concepts for Artificial Intelligence (AI) to provide a personalized user experience for the passengers in the form of Contextual Personalized Shortcuts and Personalized Services in the infotainment system. The two use cases were iteratively developed based on literature research and surveys. We evaluated AI- Personalized Services and compared AI-generated to the manually configurable shortcuts. AttrakDiff (Hassenzahl et al., 2003) and Car Technology Acceptance Model (CTAM; Osswald et al., 2012) were used to evaluate UX and user acceptance. The AI-Personalized interface obtained positive scores and reactions in the user testing and shows potential. Based on the insight from the user studies and literature review, we present and human-AI interaction guidelines to build effective AI-personalized HMIs.

Shrivaas Madapusi Sundar, Valeria Bopp-Bertenbreiter, Daniel Ziegler, Ravi Kanth Kosuru, Christian Knecht, Bastian Pfleging, Frederik Diederichs, Harald Widlroither

Conference Proceedings

Bringing the Driver Back In-The-Loop: Usefulness of Letting the Driver Know the Duration of an Automated Drive and its Impact on Takeover Performance

A critical challenge of higher levels of automated driving (SAE level 3) is the reengagement of the driver to take back manual control. In this relatively novel mode of automated driving that is slowly becoming commercially available, the driver can perform non-driving related tasks but has to take over when the vehicle reaches the boundaries for its design domain for automated driving. The challenge here is for the driver to build sufficient situation awareness of the vehicle and the environment before taking back control in a timely and safe manner. In this study we investigated to what extent the driver could be helped by receiving predictive information about the duration of the automated driving as well as the available time for the reengagement.To address this research question, we conducted a simulator study where 41 participants drove alternating in manual mode and automated mode. Multiple times the participants had to take back control of driving prior to a stationary vehicle that blocked the lane. Audiovisual cues informed the participants about the necessary take-over 15 seconds in advance. The cockpit display showed the current driving mode (automated versus manual), as well as one of four types of prediction information: a) The baseline display type showed no prediction of time at all, b) the transition prediction (TP) display type showed the available time for the take-over, c) the automated driving prediction (AP) display type showed a remaining time during automated driving, and d) the combined display type showed both types of information (TP and AP). We compared the perceived usefulness of the prediction types in a questionnaire, the gaze behavior during control transition/automated driving segments as well as driving performance.The results indicate that the combined display type was perceived to be highly useful by the participants when transitioning control from automated to manual driving. This perceived usefulness is positively associated with their intention to use such a system in their daily lives. An analysis of the driver’s gaze indicates that drivers used the combined display type during takeovers and automated driving more than the other display types. Furthermore, drivers apparently acquired over time a safer gaze behavior with the combined display type as they monitored the road environment more during control transitions than in the other conditions. This effect was only present after a couple of takeovers, showing a gradual increase, which indicates that it requires some learning to fully utilize the time predictions.The results imply that a combined display type of predictive information about the duration of automated driving and reengagement time was perceived to be highly useful by the participants. In this paper we describe the results along with performance results and a comprehensive assessment with implications for further research.

Cyril Marx, Nikolai Ebinger, Erika Santuccio, Peter Moertl

Conference Proceedings

How does age impact in-vehicle touchscreen performance?

Touchscreens are becoming commonplace in the modern-day vehicle, meaning they need to be accessible to all users, young or old. An experiment was conducted to understand the impact of age-related decline on touchscreen task performance when driving where users were asked to complete a simple touchscreen task in both a stationary (static) and moving (dynamic) condition. As expected, a significant decrease in task performance was found when comparing the static condition to a dynamic one. However, when analysing these two conditions by age, only the dynamic condition produced a significant decrease. A positive moderate correlation was also found in both conditions. This result has implications for the design of in-vehicle touchscreen systems to be inclusive of users of different ages and provides insight about the impact of when tasks are carried out in the vehicle.

Lee Skrypchuk, Karl Proctor, Daniel Clifton

Conference Proceedings

Can Driver Behavior be traced to Gender Role, Sex and Age?

Traffic violations are deliberate deviations from safe driving rules associated with enhanced risks for crash involvement, impacted by traits and demographics. Violations tend to decrease with age, males and young drivers tend to make more violations. But some studies reported the opposite or no sex differences. We argue that part of this ambiguity can be attributed to gender role (Undifferentiated, Feminine, Masculine, and Androgynous). Previously, we showed that for a group of 527 adult drivers (mean age 29), gender role was a better predictor of violation tendency than sex. Now we extend this study by using a larger sample in three age categories (≤20, 21-54, and 55-65). We aim to examine whether gender role contributes to explaining violations. We distributed a web-based survey containing self-reports of traffic violations (DBQ; Reason et al., 1990), the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974), and demographics. In total we collected 1039 questionnaires, 485 females and 554 males. We used a K-Means cluster analysis to define the gender role groups and came up with 5 meaningful clusters (Undifferentiated, Feminine, Masculine, Androgynous, and Mid). The mid group is new, and indicative of possible preconception in gender roles of the Bem inventory. We then conducted a three-way interaction model on violations. Gender role, age and sex predicted respondents' violation tendency, and their three-way interaction was statistically significant. The masculine young males had the highest predicted DBQ violation scores. Scores decreased with age except for the older masculine males. Furthermore, androgynous elderly males had the lowest scores. Our results show that there is value to include gender role in analysis of violations, and that this factor contributes over age and sex alone. Including gender role yielded better predictors of driver behavior than sex alone. The effect of gender role on drivers' self-reported violation tendency is an exciting and intriguing finding which indicates the need to further examine gender role effects in driving.

Ilit Oppenheim, Yisrael Parmet, Tal Oron-Gilad

Conference Proceedings

SHRP2 Naturalistic Data Analysis of Older Drivers’ Gap-Acceptance Behaviour

Drivers aged 65 and older are very prone to motor vehicle crashes. Intersections appear to be hazardous for drivers of this age group due to the driver’s cognitive, perceptual, and psychomotor challenges. Literature notes that older drivers find it incredibly challenging to safely navigate left turns at signalized intersections. Studies have identified the driver’s physical health, vision, and cognition as factors that impact the ability of older drivers to sufficiently monitor the gaps in oncoming traffic to make a left turn safely. The current paper aims to address the gap in the literature by explicitly examining older drivers’ gap acceptance behaviors during left turns at protected intersections. We utilize the Naturalistic Driving Study Data collected via the Strategic Highway Research Plan (SHRP2) to understand older driver behavior better. SHRP2 makes available a geo-spatially linked, comprehensive database over a multi-year period from over 3400 participants across six sites. SHRP2 databases contain a relatively more significant proportion of younger and older drivers than the national driver population databases. This dataset includes a trip summary, vehicle data, driver questionnaire, and test battery data specifying driving history, physical and psychological conditions, demographics and exit interview data, time-series data of the drivers approaching the intersections or just after the intersections, and forward video data of the drivers approaching the intersections or just after the intersections. Data is analyzed for participants over the age of 65 and participants between the ages of 30-50. Several hundred baseline, near-crash, and crash events are obtained for comparison. The video data is annotated using the DREAM methodology. The Roadway Information Database (RID) also considers additional variables such as crash histories and traffic and weather conditions. The samples of the forward video data provide the start time and end time of each gap accepted or rejected by the turning driver, especially when turning left, during unprotected phases, and help understand the participant’s interactions with other vehicles just before and after the intersections. As the data has been collected over multiple years across multiple sites, the dataset is considered a multivariate time series model. As there is more than a one-time dependent variable, the data was analyzed using Extreme Gradient Boost (XGBoost), Long-Short Term Memory (LSTM), and Seasonal Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average with eXogenous factors (SARIMAX) models. These models are expected to achieve an accuracy of around 80 percent at four-way intersections and approximately 60 percent in T-intersections. We anticipate that the older drivers will exhibit longer gap acceptance times and a greater frequency of gap rejections than their younger counterparts while turning left across traffic at signalized intersections. The findings of the current study will have implications for older driver safety. Researchers may use the findings to understand gap acceptance behaviors further, while policymakers may utilize the results to design mobility guidelines.

Sneha Srinivasan Rammanoharan, Jose Alguindigue, Apurva Narayan, Siby Samuel

Conference Proceedings

Micro scenarios – A Theory-based Intervention to Alleviate Simulator Sickness for Older Drivers in Driving Simulators

Driving continues to be the fundamental way for people to transit in North America. For older adults with physical or cognitive comorbidities, automobiles remain the most suitable method to increase mobility, independence, and quality of life. However, research shows that elderly drivers are more likely to be involved in traffic accidents. For instance, drivers over 65 are overrepresented in crashes at signalized and unsignalized four-way intersections. Driving simulator-based training interventions are a safe way for training elderly drivers, particularly on effective ways to negotiate intersections. However, driving simulators result in simulator sickness or simulation adaptation syndrome (SAS). SAS can cause nausea, disorientation, vertigo, vomiting, and sickness in humans. The adverse effects of SAS are more pronounced in older drivers over 65 compared to their younger counterparts. Studies show that the dropout rates for older drivers from simulation experiments are much higher than those for younger or middle-aged drivers. Evidence from literature largely corresponds to the Motion Cue Conflict theory by Reason and Brand. It posits that the precipitating factor for SAS is the disconnect between the participants’ visual system (in motion) and their vestibular system (stationary). Several other theories may potentially explain the occurrence of SAS, such as Poison theory, the Postural Instability theory, and the Rest-frame Theory. Treisman’s Poison theory is an evolutionary theory that identifies nausea as a natural body response to complex symptoms that resemble poisoning. Riccio and Stoffgren’s postural instability theory offers an ecology-based perspective where our action and perception systems continually attempt to maintain postural stability in our environment. According to this theory, participants get sick trying to maintain stability in a new or unfamiliar environment, such as a driving simulator. Lastly, Prothero’s rest-frame theory identifies conflicting rest-frames instead of conflicting cues as the precipitator for SAS. Across the four theories, the amount of visual flow in the simulator and the time participants spend in a simulator are the common factors potentiating SAS. To alleviate SAS, several methods and approaches have been developed and evaluated. These include galvanized vestibular stimulations, galvanic cutaneous stimulation, appropriate visual background manipulations, virtual guiding avatars, and the use of alternative sensory conditions. However, none of the above interventions have improved older driver secondary glance behavior. The current paper proposes a novel methodological approach - micro scenarios, which can effectively reduce optical flow to target older driver SAS problems, especially in scenarios involving the negotiation of left turns at intersections. Micro scenarios specifically aim to decrease the total exposure time and increase the frequency of rest breaks while striving to retain the effectiveness of the training itself. Microscenarios are driven by the Postural Instability theory and the Motion cue conflict theory. Simulator-based evaluations of micro scenarios produced very low dropout rates, and participants reported very low levels of simulator sickness compared to typical scenarios. Practitioners may use these findings to train and assess at-risk populations on driving simulators.

Chongren Sun, Siby Samuel

Conference Proceedings

To stop, or not to stop, that it the dilemma: evaluating the effects of safety countermeasures at signalized intersections during the yellow phase

At the onset of the yellow phase of signalized intersections, the approaching drivers may hesitate to decide to go or stop due to the dilemma zone (DZ). The drivers who decide to pass through the intersection might occur in red light violations and right-angle crashes, while some others might stop suddenly and prematurely with the subsequent risk of rear-end collisions. This study is aimed at analyzing the driver's behavior at the onset of the yellow signal, and identifying the most effective safety countermeasure for the resolution of the dilemma zone in order to help drivers in their stop/go decisions and reduce the risk of crashes. To achieve this objective, a driving simulator study was carried out and the effects of the following countermeasures were tested on a signalized intersection of an urban scenario: i) Green Signal Countdown Timers GSCT (C1); ii) newly developed horizontal marking and vertical warning sign (C2); iii) an in-vehicle advanced driving assistance system based on augmented reality and connected vehicle technologies (C3). The results revealed that the most effective countermeasure was C3 which provided the drivers with prompt and personalized suggestions based on their actual speed; in fact, a major reduction of Red Light Running (RLR) and length of the dilemma zone were recorded. C2 resulted in a significant reduction of the dilemma zone with the greatest consistency in driver decision-making behaviors. Finally, using C1 it was observed an unnecessary increase in early stopping rates with a reduction of the intersection efficiency.

Alessandro Calvi, Fabrizio D'Amico, Chiara Ferrante, Claudio Petrella

Conference Proceedings

A comprehensive safety analysis for gaze fixation of drivers to outside scene

Driver distraction is one of the major contributing factors for crashes and near crashes. Research shows that driver distraction for as small as 2 seconds can result in safety critical events. Unfortunately, there are limited research in understanding the effects of outside objects in driver distraction. In this work we mainly concentrate on gaze fixation to objects that are located outside the vehicle. We used crash/ near crash (CNC) events, as well as baseline (BL) driving events from SHRP2 naturalistic driving study (NDS) to understand gaze fixation patterns. We selected a total of 666 events from CNC and 446 events from BL events. To reduce variability, these events are selected for cases where the driver gaze is fixated through the right windshield. We performed statistical analysis on both the sets of events for gaze fixation. When comparing between CNC and BL, the drivers mostly struggle to perceive information of dynamic objects in the scene, information from billboards and intersection scene, as well as for driving tasks while changing lanes, maneuvering to avoid other objects including pedestrians, taking a turn.

Abhijit Sarkar

Conference Proceedings

Driver instruction for automated vehicles: Assessing the role of specific elements on learner motivation and mental model development

Along with the increasing degree of automation of the driving task, calls for user education on automated driving have emerged. Indeed, previous studies could show positive effects of user education, e.g., on driving performance and mental model development. However, recent research has not yet examined the effectiveness of specific elements in that context. Research in educational psychology has shown that motivation to learn is crucial for learning success. Thus, in the present study we examined the role of specific instructional elements on learner motivation for automated vehicles.Following psychological needs theory, we examined the influence of autonomy and competence on the dependent variables intrinsic learning motivation and mental model development, trust in and acceptance of the automated vehicle. To that end, we developed learning material on an automated vehicle that was embedded in an online study and structured into four topics. Depending on the experimental group, different elements were added to this material to assess their effect on the dependent variables.A total of N = 193 participants took part in the online study. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (1) A group that could freely choose the order in which they read the provided topics to operationalize the aspect of autonomy. (2) A group that received feedback on answering simple yes/no questions after reading the instructions on each topic to operationalize the aspect of competence. (3) A group that received a combination of both autonomy and competence elements, and (4) a control group that read the material without any further manipulation. Participants’ mental models were assessed with a questionnaire for declarative knowledge and 17 pictures (created in a simulation program) of an automated vehicle from the driver’s perspective in different situations. Participants should anticipate the automated vehicle’s behavior in the given situation and choose the correct action. In addition, to allow for a longitudinal assessment, we also evaluated the dependent variables in a follow-up survey two weeks later.Statistical analysis indicated that combination and competence groups exhibited in tendency more motivation to learn the content than the autonomy and control groups. Incorporation of feedback elements thus seemed to have successfully facilitated learning motivation. Concerning the participants’ mental models, results indicate that the competence group showed a better declarative knowledge compared to the autonomy group, although all groups showed a decline in their knowledge after two weeks. However, concerning situation specific knowledge, no group differences were found. A significant interaction effect indicated that at follow-up, participants in the competence group reported higher trust ratings than the other groups. No significant effects for acceptance were found. Taken together, results indicate that by fostering feelings of competence, mental model formation for automated vehicles can be supported. However, contrary to our expectation, offering learners the freedom to choose their own order of learning did neither facilitate intrinsic motivation nor trust or mental model development. Thus, this study suggests that feedback elements support learning outcomes for driver instruction of automated vehicles and can be incorporated into different means of instruction.

Sophie Feinauer, Irene Groh, Tibor Petzoldt

Conference Proceedings

Control Centers for Maneuver-based Teleoperation of Highly Automated and Autonomous Vehicles: System Model and Requirements

The drive towards highly automated vehicles is continuing to gain traction, however when bridging the gap from SAE level 2 automated vehicles to highly automated level 4 vehicles, there is a phase that will require temporary takeovers by a human driver. One approach is that a tele-operator is taking over the full control over the vehicle, which requires a sophisticated control center and a data connection enabling video with sufficient bandwidth and low latency. A slightly different approach can be chosen: When a driving automation reaches a system limit or border (e.g. a construction zone or an unclear traffic situation), it can request the support of an operator in a control center to support with the vehicle control. In this instance, the vehicle is not directly tele-operated but instead proposes a possible maneuver, which then can be selected, dismissed or approved by the operator, and will then be executed by the automated driving system. This is a likely scenario for vehicles with automation capabilities limited to specific use cases or in mixed traffic situations in which not all vehicles are capable of vehicle-to-vehicle communication. An additional role of the operator is responding to emergency calls by occupants by assessing the situation in the vehicle and its surroundings. Using a video and audio link, the operator can connect with an occupant in case of security or health concerns. The paper presents a human system analysis and sketches the requirements for a control center as an intermediate step towards the rollout of highly automated or autonomous vehicles.

Nicolas Herzberger, Joscha Wasser, Frank Flemisch

Conference Proceedings

(Don’t) Talk to Me! Application of the Kano Method for Speech Outputs in Conditionally Automated Driving

Conditionally automated driving (L3) implies repeated transitions of the driving responsibility between the human operator and the automated driving system. This research examines users’ attitudes towards speech outputs as potential features for human-machine interfaces for L3 automated driving. The Kano method is applied to identify scenarios where users prefer speech outputs. After a test drive with an L3 automated vehicle, N = 42 drivers take part in a survey on speech outputs in different scenarios. The results identify users’ preferences for speech outputs in critical situations. In non-critical application areas, the findings of the Kano method and further comments show a large variance among participants. Customization is desired for the design of speech outputs - including the way of addressing the human operator. Future research should focus on the development of user preferences for speech outputs in long-term studies and the identification of user groups.

Deike Albers, Niklas Grabbe, Yannick Forster, Frederik Naujoks, Andreas Keinath, Klaus Bengler

Conference Proceedings

Interactive merging behavior in a coupled driving simulator: Experimental framework and case study

Human highway-merging behavior is an important aspect when developing autonomous vehicles (AVs) that can safely and successfully interact with other road users. To design safe and acceptable human-AV interactions, the underlying mechanisms in human-human interactive behavior need to be understood. Exposing and understanding these mechanisms can be done using controlled driving simulator experiments. However, until now, such human-factors merging experiments have focused on aspects of the behavior of a single driver (e.g., gap acceptance) instead of on the dynamics of the interaction. Furthermore, existing experimental scenarios and data analysis tools (i.e., concepts like time-to-collision) are insufficient to analyze human-human interactive merging behavior. To help facilitate human-factors research on merging interactions, we propose an experimental framework consisting of a general simplified merging scenario and a set of three analysis tools: (1) a visual representation that captures the combined behavior of two participants and the safety margins they maintain in a single plot; (2) a signal (over time) that describes the level of conflict; and (3) a metric that describes the amount of time that was required to solve the merging conflict, called the conflict resolution time. In a case study with 18 participants, we used the proposed framework and analysis tools in a top-down view driving simulator where two human participants can interact. The results show that the proposed scenario can expose diverse behaviors for different conditions. We demonstrate that our novel visual representation, conflict resolution time, and conflict signal are valuable tools when comparing human behavior between conditions. Therefore, with its simplified merging scenario and analysis tools, the proposed experimental framework can be a valuable asset when developing driver models that describe interactive merging behavior and when designing AVs that interact with humans.

Olger Siebinga, Arkady Zgonnikov, David Abbink

Conference Proceedings

Evaluation of a User-adaptive Light-based Interior Concept for Supporting Mobile Office Work during Highly Automated Driving

Automated driving promises that users can devote their travel time to activities like relaxing or mobile office (MO) work. We present an interior light concept for supporting MO work and evaluate it in a driving simulator study with participants. A vehicle mock-up was equipped as MO including light elements for focus and ambient illumination. Based on these, an adaptive (i.e. adapting to user activities) and an adaptable (i.e. could be changed by user according to preference) light set-up were created and compared to a baseline version. Regarding user experience, the adaptive variant was rated best on hedonic aspects, while the adaptable variant scored highest on pragmatic facets. In addition, the adaptable set-up was ranked best on preference before adaptive and baseline. This suggest that adaption of the interior light to non-driving related activities improves user experience. Future studies should evaluate combinations of the adaptive and the adaptive variants tested here.

Fabian Walocha, Hoai Phuong Nguyen, Uwe Drewitz, Klas Arne Ihme

Conference Proceedings

Human Autonomous Vehicle (HAV): From sickness prevention to emotional response

Dynamic driving simulators have been a key tool to reduce time and costs during the design and development of new automobile models or advanced driving assistance systems (ADAS) (Lyga et al., 2020). However, more efforts are needed to enhance the acceptance of new technologies by considering the human factors early in the process.Due to the high development costs or to the low fidelity of the final result, to develop and build a medium cost dynamic driving simulator with a good level of immersivity is not an easy task. The simulator should have a high level of immersivity, to achieve high correlation with field operational tests, and minimize the sickness effect of the simulators. A simulator with these capabilities can be used to validate different devices or systems from the automobile field with users, measuring physiological signals, behavior, movements and telemetry data.IBV has achieved this dynamic driving simulator by using an open-source software, CARLA (Team, n.d.), in which the different scenarios can be simulated. This simulator is based in a client server architecture, a motion platform with 6 degrees of freedom and 550 kg of payload (“Motion Platform PS-6TM-550 (6DoF, 550kg) - Motion Systems,” n.d.), three main screens with two rearview screens and an HMI (Human Machine Interface). This HMI can be used as an additional screen showing relevant travel information to the user, as a display of the user´s signals or as a panel with a driving assistance system among other things.The possibility of validating different products with a dynamic simulator of these characteristics, in which emotional responses associated to the different driving conditions can be generated and evaluated, with defined and customized experimentation conditions, and without having to develop their own simulator, can save a lot of time and money to the different companies.

Víctor De Nalda Tárrega, Andrés Soler, Nicolás Palomares, Javier Silva, Jose Laparra, Jose Solaz

Conference Proceedings

Implications of Human-Machine Interface for Inclusive Shared Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous Vehicles (AVs), also known as self-driving cars, driverless cars, or robot cars, can perceive their environment and drive safely with little or no human inputs. Under the support of engineering, information science, anthropology, AVs have developed rapidly at the technical level, demonstrating to reduce human error operations and lessening road usage to save time. In the future, users will always be more released from driving tasks Self-driving vehicles can be more advantageous and feasible in public transportation than in private ones. Therefore, shared buses and logistics vehicles have been trial operation in various countries nowadays. Moreover, this technology will enable road traffic for people who cannot drive due to various physical and cognitive impairments. Therefore, inclusivity is often cited as one of the main reasons for promoting user acceptance of this technology, and it is fundamental in its application. Inclusive design can be achieved by identifying and addressing as many barriers to the Human-Machine Interface (HMI) as possible, focusing on human factors inside and outside the self-driving vehicle. It can enable groups with different needs to interact comfortably with the AVs and the traffic environment. Specifically, within a shared autonomous vehicle, we focus on transferring vehicle control between multiple users, reducing human error, and improving system availability. In addition, for many non-driving-related tasks (NDRT) derived from the gradual improvement of autonomous driving, the design of interactive devices and processes suitable for different groups and their cognition, the usability and comfort of the system will be improved, as well as the user experience. Concerning the scenes outside the vehicle, the impact of different types of external HMIs on the user experience of other user groups (e.g., young, old, cognitive, or physical disabilities, Etc.) attracted more attention from scholars. At the same time, communication channels and interfaces established between users and AVs will become more prominent on an inclusive basis. Consequently, HMI is essential for functional and inclusive driving automation, guaranteeing an efficient and satisfactory interaction between the automated system and different users.This paper provides an overview of the HMI challenges in shared driving automation from an inclusive design perspective, summarizing existing research on the role of HMIs in shared autonomous vehicles. The authors identified the fundamental changes in the way the user interacts with the car in shared autonomous vehicles using a systematic literature review including the following four steps: 1) identification of purposes and research questions of the literature review 2) definition of a literature search strategy by identifying a combination of sequential and iterative search queries; 3) analyze the retrieved articles compiling a concept matrix for each of them. As a result, relevant literature related to the research topic was selected; 4) identifying research gaps and inconsistent research results to make tacit domain meta-knowledge explicit. The paper will contain the analysis and discussion of the obtained data. Finally, the paper will discuss the future challenges for promoting a deeper exploration of inclusivity of HMIs for autonomous vehicles, also proposing the research avenues practical to increase the user's acceptance of this technology.

Ming Yan, Lucia Rosa Elena Rampino, Huimin Zhao, and Giandomenico Caruso

Conference Proceedings

User-Friendly Embedding of Vehicle Fast Charging in Primary Vehicle Use with Persona Models

In addition to the reduction of charging times, the optimization of the charging process and its integration into the primary vehicle use is a central approach to minimize the loss of comfort for the user. In a first step, design-critical vehicle users were identified and modelled in typical user scenarios. Then, on this basis and taking into account an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of fast-charging technology currently available on the market, the requirements definition for the development of a system for "user-friendly support in the planning of a transport task for EVs" is carried out. The focus will be on the development of a multi input device operating system that is based on a different degree of connec-tivity and automation depending on the different user types. The focus of the evaluation lies in the discussion of the correlation between the degree of connec-tivity and automation and the user types. Systematically derived operating con-cepts are evaluated in the context of subject studies.

Lampros Tsolakidis, Alexander Mueller, Simon Buck, Fabian Schmiel

Conference Proceedings

Comparison and Evaluation of Visual and Auditory Signals According to Different Levels of Information for Multimodal eHMI Design

Autonomous vehicles are rapidly evolving, but it is obvious that they need to be partially fused and adapted to the current road conditions. In this process, the newly proposed eHMI to replace human drivers presents various possibilities beyond simple communication. In this study, we confirmed that eHMI contributes to road safety and conducted a comparison and evaluation of complex combinations of visual and auditory signals. As a scenario for the experiment, a pedestrian accident with the driver’s limited view was set. This was produced in a 360-degree VR video so that participants could be more immersed in the risk of accident situations and eHMI signals. Participants conducted paired comparison, evaluations of intuitiveness and warning, and open discussion was also recorded in the process. Rather than providing an excessive amount of information via both auditory and visual channels, a combination of visual and auditory signals that complemented each other performed better from the pedestrians’ point of view.

Dokshin Lim, Seong Geun Ahn

Conference Proceedings

An investigation into design engineering aspects of a shared autonomous micro vehicle concept

Future transport will require fundamental changes if we are to tackle the climate crisis efficiently. Autonomous vehicles could play a crucial role as alternatives for private cars without hindering basic individual transport needs. That is especially true for the first and last mile, which is not covered by the public transport network. The scientific project AuRa (“Autonomes Rad”, engl. autonomous bicycle) comes in here. It develops a use case in which an electrified three-wheeled cargo bike will become an on-demand, shared autonomous vehicle for the city. The present work in progress focuses on the development of a user-centered design for such a vehicle. Recently, there has been a growing interest to illustrate the potential early involvement of future users can have on the successful introduction of new products. A better understanding of user needs, behavior, and expectations could inform de-signers and enable them to develop products that better correspond with the true needs of users. For the investigation into design engineering aspects of the future concept, a qualitative method was selected. A series of moderated discussions (focus groups) were conducted with potential users. The main goal was to investigate features regarding safety, comfort, personalization, and interaction, which enable comfortable usage for the user and might increase the acceptance of the vehicle. The results were used to inform engineering designers and support the further development of the next prototype of the autonomous cargo bike.

Devina Manoeva, Sigrid Salzer, Stephan Schmidt

Conference Proceedings

Advanced Air Mobility: Cabin of the Future Rescue Helicopters

In the summer of 2019, the Bertelsmann-Foundation caused quite some commotion in the medical world in Germany. Their study on the density of the hospitals and clinics in Germany showed that the current amount of 1900 could be reduced to 600. Even if it was considered too extreme, it did stir a change. There is a plan to gradually reduce the number of hospitals down to 1200, making the hospitals and clinics better equipped to treat a broad variety of medical issues. This has as a direct consequence that those hospitals will not be equally accessible for the entire population. People living in rural areas might end up having more than 30 minutes journey to the nearest hospital, in best case scenario when the traffic is light. As the current primary rescue helicopters are not equipped for the near future missions, there is a need for an air vehicle that will cover the requirements posed by as well the changes in the medical system as the patients.On the other side, the cities are growing bigger, causing traffic density to increase as well. Time that an ambulance needs to reach the place of medical emergency varies per city, and steadily increases over the years, due to the ever-growing traffic. Current Medical Personnel Deployment (aerial) Vehicle are off the shelf smaller helicopters, often still too big for its intended purpose. In January 2020, a new project within German Aerospace Center has started, bearing the name Chaser, as a means of answering to above challenge. Its goal is developing two different aerial vehicles with a bespoke cabin design. As the cabin is an integral part of the vehicles, its design is considered equally important to other components and will be developed parallel to the vehicle development. In order to ensure that the cabin is well fitting the needs of its users, a user centered approach will be applied according to the Design Thinking Method. There are three distinctive sorts of users in this case: medical personnel, vehicle operators and the patients. The current and future needs and desires of all three groups shall be considered through means of co-design, a method that will provide an insight in what users actually need. Considering the complexity of the vehicle, a close cooperation with other design disciplines, such as flight performance, structures and aerodynamics is required. This paper will show the mission definition of the two vehicles, the method used to gather and analyze the required data, the trend analysis as well as forth flowing requirements. The results of the co-design workshop series, expert in-depth interviews and user journey maps will be shown, as well as an example of possible design outcome. To wrap up, an outlook into the future project work will be depicted, including the conceptual design solutions for the posed challenges.

Ivana Moerland-Masic, Fabian Reimer, Peter Weiand, Thomas Weber, Thomas-Mathias Bock, Frank Meller, Bjoern Nagel

Conference Proceedings

Early Callsign Highlighting using Automatic Speech Recognition to Reduce Air Traffic Controller Workload

The primary task of an air traffic controller (ATCo) is to issue instructions to pi-lots. However, the first verbal communication contact is often initiated by the pi-lot. Hence, the ATCo needs to search for the aircraft radar label that corresponds to the callsign uttered by the pilot. Therefore, it would be useful to have a control-ler assistance system, which recognizes and highlights the spoken callsign in the ATCo display as early as possible, directly from the speech data. Therefore, we propose to use an automatic speech recognition (ASR) system to first obtain the speech-to-text transcription, followed by extracting the spoken callsign from the transcription. As a high performance in callsign recognition is required, we use surveillance data, which significantly reduces callsign recognition error rates. When using ASR transcriptions for ATCo utterances of Isavia data (HAAWAII project ), we initially obtain a callsign recognition error rate of 6.2%, which im-proves to 2.8% when surveillance data information is used.For the ATC operational speech data obtained from NATS air navigation service provider for London approach area, currently we obtain a callsign recognition rate of 93.8% for both ATCo and pilot utterances on automatic transcriptions which are generated by an ASR system with a word error rate of 5.1%. However, when surveillance data is not used, the callsign recognition rate drops significantly to 82.7%, indicating the importance of using surveillance data while recognizing callsigns. Once the callsign is spoken, we are able to recognize it within a second, which would be of great value to ATCos especially in situations of high traffic constituting high workload.

Shruthi Shetty, Hartmut Helmke, Matthias Kleinert, Oliver Ohneiser

Conference Proceedings

Safety & Privacy in Urban Air Mobility (UAM) - A User Centric Design Approach Providing Insights into People´s Preferences for UAM Cabin Designs

For years, manufacturers and research institutions around the world have been working on various concepts to start a new era of urban and suburban transportation for people with so-called Air Taxis. However, the social acceptance of this new type of mobility is widely assumed to play an essential role in the future development of this field. Since passengers of future Air Taxis will spend most of the trip inside the cabin area, the desire for safety and privacy within the cabin might have a substantial impact on people´s opinions about such vehicles. Therefore, users are being involved in the design process of future Air Taxi cabins from the very beginning as part of the Horizon UAM project at the DLR German Aerospace Center. For this purpose, an online survey was initiated in July 27, 2021 and completed in October 19, 2021, resulting in 202 valid datasets of participants from various demographic groups in Germany. One survey part focused on factors of safety and privacy and was divided into two stages. In the first stage, respondents were asked to share their personal experiences and opinions about safety and privacy in public transport. In the second stage, six different scenarios for UAM cabins were presented. All scenarios used cabins with four seats in two rows of seats facing each other, including different types of partition walls. For evaluating each concept, participants were asked to imagine themselves being on a 10-15 -minute flight with an Air Taxi. Both in a scenario as a solo traveler and as a traveler with an accompanying person, the overall evaluation of each concept had to be given with respect to privacy, safety and comfort.The response pattern of the first part indicates, that the hygiene of a seat in public transportation was perceived to be particularly important. Furthermore, respondents showed a strong preference to have a free seat next to them, while group seating areas with four seats seemed to be rather avoided. Moreover, it tended to be relatively unimportant for the participants to be able to see the driver of the public vehicle. The response pattern of the second part suggested, for instance, that respondents seemed to decline partition walls in case they disturb the visual contact with an accompanying person. Accordingly, the absence of any partitions was also rated relatively positive, for the scenario of traveling with companion. In trips without an accompanying person, sharing a separated area with a foreigner tended to be evaluated rather negatively, especially when facing each other. However, complete separation from all fellow passengers also received a substantial amount of negative evaluations.Consequently, future Air Taxi cabin design concepts should avoid fully closed compartments with two foreign travelers facing each other. Therefore, flexible separation concepts might be considered in order to create an individual level of safety and privacy inside UAM cabins. The findings of the survey provide important information for future cabin design of air taxis. By involving the population into the process, the acceptance towards new modes of transport might be increased.

Fabian Reimer, Ivana Moerland-Masic, Albert End, Jana Schadow, Thomas-Mathias Bock, Frank Meller, Bjoern Nagel

Conference Proceedings

Continuing Development of a Novel Framework for Visual Air Traffic Controller Tasks: Determining metrics for evaluating spatial relationships

The purpose of this paper is to present a combination of metrics for evaluating spatial relationships while utilizing new airport traffic control tower (ATCT) technologies that replace a traditional out-the-window view. Johnson’s criteria of object detection, recognition, and identification are used as an objective metric when siting new ATCTs. However, Airport Traffic Control Specialists (ATCSs) must incorporate additional cues into their decision-making process for the variety of tasks relying on visual information. In particular, ATCSs utilize perceptual cues from the airport's environment to ensure both runway separation and sequencing/spacing based on visual cues provide safe and efficient operations. For both safety and efficiency, ensuring runway separation is one of the most important services ATCSs provide. When an ATCS is responsible for ensuring runway separation using a display screen instead of a window, additional factors need to be considered when evaluating these technologies’ ability to provide the necessary visual information. In addition to Johnson’s criteria for detecting, recognizing, and identifying a single object, a combination of factors, such as landmarks, relative speed, crossing intersections, etc., need to be utilized to ensure ATCSs can determine spatial relationships between two objects, and therefore provide runway separation. This paper will discuss the application of these factors in an evaluation of new technologies for ATCTs.

Lori Smith, Amelia Kinsella, Katherine Berry, Rebecca Collins

Conference Proceedings

Pilot's Visual Attention Allocation When Taking Risk in Flight Simulator

Pilots play a key role in the flight deck and their visual attention allocations also strongly affect their flight risk-taking behaviors. This study aims to investigate the pilot’s patterns of visual attention allocation during an approach with low visibility. A total of 20 professional airline pilots were recruited to conduct an approaching task on a B737-800 flight simulator with high fidelity, and 19 of them provided valid data. We collected their eye movement data during the task. Meanwhile, according to their risk-taking behaviors (go around or land), they were divided into a safe group or risky group. Results showed that the distribution of visual attention was related to the pilot’s visual areas of interest (AOIs), but the risk-taking behaviors were not affected by the fixation parameters. Our findings provide empirical insights about pilots’ visual attention allocation during approach and suggestions for optimizing the design of the instrument in the cockpit.

Ruiyuan Hong, Kai Qu, Shan Gao, Lei Wang

Conference Proceedings

The Ground Station Operator in Single Pilot Operations – Active or Passive role?

The introduction of single pilot operations (SPO) in commercial aviation for large passenger aircraft will require new operational procedures and the implementation of technical innovations on the ground and in the cockpit. Most concepts under investigation assume ground support at all times to monitor and support the onboard single pilot (SP). The question remains on the level of involvement of the ground station operator (GSO) in nominal situations in two phases of highest workload, departure and arrival. Current operational procedures of two-piloted aircraft assume a distribution of tasks and responsibilities between the pilot flying (PF) and the pilot monitoring (PM). In SPO the pilot will remain the pilot flying (arguably with more support from automation), but automation, the GSO or even the SP, will need to take over the tasks traditionally delegated to the PM. The extent of the support provided by the GSO depends on the chosen operational concept and the expected level of engagement. We present an analysis of the allocation of tasks for an active as opposed to a more passive role of the human operator on the ground during the departure and arrival phases, complementing the analyses conducted in previous research.

Ana P G Martins, Joonas Lieb, Max Friedrich

Conference Proceedings

Misrepresenting Reality - Limitations of Accident Documentaries for Airline Pilot Training

Previous research indicates that many pilots believe studying past accidents is important for current airline safety. Furthermore, TV documentaries are a common source of information about accidents. This study examines how accurately the 1990 Avianca 052 accident is represented in one influential documentary. The analysis compares the documentary with information in the NTSB accident report and finds that extensive and significant changes were made. The adaptations include: use of an omniscient narrator, language change, dialog transformations, paralinguistics, the addition of visual information and other voices. The implication is that the documentary is a simplified and inaccurate representation of the Avianca 052 accident. This is problematic because the documentary continues to be widely used as an information source. The paper concludes with a caution concerning the use of accident documentaries in airline pilot training.

Simon Cookson

Conference Proceedings

User experiences and expectations towards automation and safety in air traffic control

Various forms of advanced automation in air traffic control are being developed to reduce air traffic controller (ATCO) workload, support performance, and increase safety. However, higher levels of automation can negatively affect the ATCO's performance, reduce situation awareness (SA), and the usage of automation also depends on user acceptance. Previous studies have shown that automation can be met with resistance from ATCOs, which might lead to disuse. Thus, this paper continues the exploration of ATCOs' expectations of automation to deeper understand ATCOs’ fears and anticipations. Through a questionnaire, operational ATCOs answered questions regarding their current experiences and future expectations regarding automation extend, safety, SA, and workload. The quantitative analysis shows that automation and workload are expected to increase in the future compared with today and that safety and SA are expected to decrease. Even though the participants highlighted that they do not want to become the backup system to the automation, it is in that direction the development is heading. These are worrying results and something the air traffic management community should see as a wake-up call. A well-calibrated attitude towards automation seems crucial to ensure the best human-automation interplay.

Åsa Svensson, Maximilian Peukert

Conference Proceedings

On the road to Autonomous Maritime Transport: A conceptual framework to meet training needs for future ship operations

Accelerating towards an autonomous future, the maritime transport industry is going through a phase of rapid digitalization and automation. Novel technologies and complex tools, that substitute human functions, are increasingly introduced on board modern ships. However, experiences from other industries show that introducing complex technologies in the workplace without due consideration of the human factors can often lead to disastrous consequences. Traditionally, seafarers developed their competencies through authentic participation in shipboard activities, under the guidance of experienced seniors. However, with digitalization, various tasks are getting internalized, leaving no clues about the inner workings to an onlooker, and this in turn, is adversely affecting their learning opportunities. Studies also show that in a technology-rich workplace, the limited number of human operators overseeing multiple, complex tasks, can cause job intensification, operator’s cognitive overload, error in judgment, and costly accidents. The recent investigation reports of many maritime accidents point to the improper use of technology as among the major causal factors. This underscores the need for re-addressing cognitive human factor and competency development of seafarers, relevant to the use of modern technology and human-machine interactions. In this book chapter, we propose the use of theoretical framework of Quasi-Community (QC) to better understand the context and prepare the seafarers to interact, learn, adapt, and develop new competencies for their technology-rich workplace. With its fluid, dynamic, decentralized hierarchy, and shared expertise as a common resource, we argue that the concept of QC will make an ideal framework that can facilitate the creation of a supportive learning environment for transitioning and future seafarers.

Gholam Reza Emad, Saratkumar Narayanan, Aditi Kataria

Conference Proceedings

Challenges of simulation training for future engineering seafarers - A qualitative case study

Maritime transportation is currently in a transitional period to an impending autonomous future. To that end, novel technologies are increasingly being introduced on-board ships and their engine rooms. At the same time, advancements in digitalization and automation are progressively replacing and reducing the number of marine engineers on-board. Consequently, with increasing automation in machinery spaces and unmanned engine rooms, the role of the marine engineers has been altered to that of monitoring and oversight. The substantial changes in the nature of tools and job description of the marine engineers necessitate the re-assessment and revision of their training and pedagogy. Currently, the simulator is a powerful tool in the training and development of marine operators. Although the literature review reveals some interest in marine engineering simulation training, however, there is a lack of attention to remote and cloud-based simulation training as part of blended learning. This study reveals that imparting marine engineering simulation training online is not free from challenges. This study reports the findings from a qualitative study of marine engineering simulation training, conducted as part of a larger ethnographic study on developing maritime competence. The study utilizes the socio-historical, context-dependent framework of the Activity System (AS) to analyze marine engineering simulation training. The study reveals issues with cloud-based marine engineering simulation training. Firstly, cloud-based training is not seamless to access. Secondly, not all features present in the desktop simulation are present in the cloud version. Thirdly the cloud-based platform affords limited feedback in comparison to the desktop version. Fourthly, cloud-based simulation training does not support peer learning. An understanding of the challenges of cloud-based marine engineering simulation training will help address these concerns. Furthermore, it will facilitate the competence development of marine engineers as they work in increasingly automated workspaces in the transition to autonomous ship operations.

Gholam Reza Emad, Aditi Kataria

Conference Proceedings

Exploring strengths and weaknesses in professional marine pilot education

Marine pilotage is one of the foremost measures to increase maritime safety and decrease the risk for hazards in areas that are challenging to navigate in, such as in and out of ports. Pilotage is usually carried out by marine pilots, who are mariners with local expertise that support and consult a vessel’s master in navigational matters. Their work enables an effective communication with local and shore-based service, thus promoting a safe passage. As pilots play a crucial role in ensuring maritime safety and protecting the environment, training and education play a particularly important role. This study presents findings from a focused group interview that was conducted with five experienced pilots, who also work as instructors within the Swedish marine pilot education. The aim of the interview was to explore strengths and weaknesses in today’s education, as well as to identify potential opportunities and threats. Furthermore, the focus group also intended to highlight potential future directions for improvements of the professional education and training. While the SWOT-analysis was originally developed as a tool for strategic planning in fields like marketing, in recent years we are starting to notice an increase in applications, not at least in Human Factors research. Thus, the interest was to further explore the usefulness for conducting SWOT-analyses in research projects related to professional education programs.The results from the SWOT-analysis show that the training and education is strengthened by the wide variety of practical experiences that the instructors gain from actively working as pilots. Furthermore, the advantage of being able to use real-life experience to design training units increases the relevance of the theoretical knowledge for the trainees and is likely to impact on the overall transferability between training and work settings. However, the experts also highlight that there is a general lack of organizational support and pedagogical training, which may affect the training’s quality and delivery. Furthermore, it was also stressed that there is a lack of short- and long-term evaluation, so it remains unknown what parts of the education are successful and where potential improvements are necessary. The discussions among the experts also highlighted that training is a precondition to become a marine pilot, but that there is need to gain a deeper understanding for traits and competences that shape the preconditions for being a skilled pilot, as well as experience as master mariner is critical, but that experience may not naturally transfer into expertise. Finally, non-technical and interpersonal skills were highlighted as being the crucial for becoming pilot and that there might be too little focus on how to develop these skills in comparison to shiphandling and other technical skills. While the interview was specifically focused on marine pilots, the highlighted strengths, and weaknesses, as well as potential improvements may also be applicable to other professional education programs. In particular, a SWOT-analysis can be a useful tool to start to identify topics for further explorations in new research projects related to professional education programs.

Gesa Praetorius, Charlott Sellberg

Conference Proceedings

Transferring tacit knowledge during maritime pilot training: assessment of methods in use

Accurate knowledge management is vital for an organization to perform well. Managing explicit knowledge is relatively easy but managing tacit (implicit) knowledge is not. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge from experts to novices in an organization is therefore essential. Maritime pilotage is a safety-critical operation in which pilots use their expertise to guide vessels in specific waters. The purpose of this study is to improve the Pilot Training Programme (PTP) run by the Swedish Maritime Administration (SMA). The aim of this study is to evaluate and describe the prevailing methods of transferring tacit knowledge during the PTP. This study includes 20 maritime pilots and covers a complete PTP. A qualitative mixed-methods approach was used, based on activity theory and including observations, interviews, questionnaires, and document analyses. The results showed that tacit knowledge transfer during the PTP occurs during situated learning, such as apprenticeships, hands-on learning and communities of work. However, the transfer methods are not sufficiently documented from a didactic perspective.

Rikard Eklund, Anna-Lisa Osvalder

Conference Proceedings

EEG-based stress recognition in competency assessment using maritime navigation simulator

Human factors receive increasing attention in maritime operations as it is found that human errors cause up to 90% of maritime incidents. One of the solutions to enhance safety in maritime navigation is to consider both technical and non-technical skills during training and assessment. Technical skills are always the first and foremost step in training or assessment. However, it may not be enough to solely conduct the navigation safely and efficiently by technical skills. Non-technical skills such as situational awareness, workload and stress management, and decision making also play a critical role in safe navigation and should not be overlooked. In addition, the seafarers spend a long time on board as part of their typical work pattern, and due to the current pandemic, they might be stranded at sea for even longer. It has been urged that ship owners and managers take the right actions to care for seafarers' mental well-being, such as stress and fatigue. To fulfil the needs of non-technical skill assessment and monitoring of mental well-being, electroencephalogram (EEG) is utilized to recognize the seafarers' mental stress when performing specific tasks in a full-mission Advanced Navigation Research Simulator (ANRS). The EEG-based recognition has unique advantages over the other biosensors. For example, it has high temporal resolution and reflects the mental states that are not identifiable from facial expressions with acceptable accuracy. A simulator allows the researchers to design and implement navigation scenarios with different weather conditions, traffic density, vessel types, emergency alarms, etc. This is ideal for conducting experiments for human factors study. An experiment has been designed and conducted in ANRS to validate the use of EEG for maritime navigational competency assessment. Participants with varied maritime backgrounds and roles were invited for data collection, e.g., navigating officers and experienced marine Pilots. Demanding events such as engine failure, close quarter situation, and other bridge equipment failure were marked during the EEG data recording. The results show that the EEG based stress recognition correlates with the demanding events in the experiment and can reflect the difficulty level of the challenging circumstances. The proposed EEG-based recognition can be used to study the human element in competency assessment using a maritime navigation simulator to ensure objective competency assessment.

Satinder Singh Virdi, Yisi Liu, Daniel Zhang

Conference Proceedings

Digitalization Transformation and its Challenges in Shipping Operation: The case of seafarer’s cognitive human factor

Industry 4.0, as the most disruptive industrial revolution, is reshaping the industries by coupling the cyber to the physical systems. The current digitalization has its root in digitization introduced by Industry 3.0, where it made a foundation for gradual industrial migration to Industry 4.0. Respectively, Shipping 3.0 introduced automation and computerized systems onboard ships and paved the way for entering Shipping 4.0. In turn, the ultimate goal of Shipping 4.0 is full autonomy through the implementation of autonomous shipping. The introduction of autonomous shipping not only modifies the maritime workplaces but also changes the jobs’ definitions and the role of seafarers as the human element in the system. However, the journey to Shipping 4.0 will take the shipping industry to different steps before ships become fully autonomous. International Maritime Organization (IMO) defined these steps in four degrees from traditional to smart shipping. This implies that, at the same time, seafarers’ role and the required skills and competencies to gradually evolve with the ship's transition to the next degree. The review of literature about Industry 4.0 shows that so far, the focus of researchers and the industry is mainly on the innovation in technology and its implementation on ships. However, the role of the human and the cognitive human factor in the process is yet to be investigated. This paper aims to explore the effects of adaptation of digitalization in the shipping industry with a focus on the human element and cognitive human factor. The paper illustrates how the innovation and technological development of Industry 4.0 is changing the shipping industry and evolving human operators’ roles, responsibilities, and training needs.

Gholam Reza Emad, Mehrangiz Shahbakhsh

Conference Proceedings

Remote Monitoring of Autonomous Ships: Quickly Getting into the Loop Display (QGILD)

Operators in Remote Operation Centers (ROC) of future Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) are to be faced with the challenge of quickly getting into the loop when ships they monitor, after long periods of perfectly working automation, suddenly needs remote assistance. The question of Human-In-The-Loop (HITL) or Human-Out-Of-The-Loop (HOOTL) will become crustal in future development of automation towards autonomy in unmanned ships. The goal of this study is to build Automation Transparency into the human-machine interface of remote operation centers. This work-in-process paper presents some early concepts on a Quickly Getting Into the Loop Display designed to do just that.

Thomas Porathe

Conference Proceedings

Implementing operational envelopes for improved resilience of autonomous maritime transport

A promising potential commonly associated with autonomous ferries is the realisation of low- or unmanned passenger transport. With the ability to provide flexible around the clock services, it can provide new and better mobility solutions for coastal cities around the world, and for cities located along rivers and inland waterways. However, operating an autonomous passenger ferry require that safety functions, today being handled by trained onboard safety crew, are maintained and approved according to current rules and regulations. Since few concrete suggestions so far have been published on how to solve this issue, new safety solutions must be developed, including new technology, processes and operational concepts. This lack of studies and work for developing automated and autonomous safety solutions stands in contrast to – up until now – the strong industry focus on developing systems and solutions enabling safe navigation. As a response, this paper suggests the implementation of operational envelopes for improved safety and resilience of autonomous shipping and ferry operations. Acknowledgements: The authors would like to acknowledge the two Norwegian Research Council projects MARMAN (324726 - FORSKER21) and AutoSafe (302005845).

Kay Fjørtoft, Even Holte

Conference Proceedings

An Integrated Approach for More Efficiency in Maritime Investigations

Incidents such as pollution or smuggling occur regularly at sea. These incidents needto be investigated by the responsible authorities in order to minimise consequentialdamage and prosecute those responsible. However, the current procedures used byinvestigators are very ineffective. That is why we have developed a software toolcalled Smart Profiling Engine (SPE). This tool supports investigators in their workand should lead to greater efficiency. In this paper, we present both the tool and astudy design that we will use to evaluate its efficiency compared to the traditionalinvestigation method.

Marcus Behrendt, Daniela Johannmeyer, Bertram Wortelen, Marcel Saager, Jacqueline Klimmek, Alexander Steinmetz

Conference Proceedings

The contribution of ship bridge design to maritime accidents

Shipping is an industry where accidents have potential catastrophic effect on humans, the environment or material assets. The design of bridge equipment and the bridge layout has a significant impact on the human-technology interaction on a ship’s bridge, hence design is important for safety of navigation. This paper presents a review of 28 accident investigation reports from the last decade where design of ship bridge equipment or bridge layout has been identified as contributing factors. Six categories of design issues were identified: 1) Bridge layout; 2) Not using available electronic equipment; 3) Unexpected use of electronic equipment; 4) Mode confusion; 5) Lack of information about system status; 6) Trust in electronic equipment. The underlying common theme for all six categories is that those who design, purchase and install ship bridge equipment does not have a sufficient understanding of the navigator’s work tasks and work context, i.e., the end-user needs. The investigation boards’ safety recommendations and the shipowners’ responses mainly concerned revising the safety management system, revising or introducing procedures and checklists, as well as crew training. These responses put the responsibility for an improved human-technology interaction on the human operator. The few recommendations and shipowner actions that concerned improving design of technology were local fixes that may prevent the exact same accident reoccurring, but do not contribute to learning on organizational or system level. For the maritime industry to learn from accidents and improve future bridge design, it is important that design issues are not only identified by the investigators, but they should also be described and investigated in more detail. Applying a systems approach to accident investigations may contribute to investigate beyond the cause ‘human error’ and provide lessons learned that can be fed back in a useful way to the relevant stakeholders, like regulators, designers, purchasers and installers. The study concludes that the increasing instrumentation and digitalization of ship bridges during the last decades has not been accompanied with usability concerns at the same pace and the operational consequences of new ship bridge design are still being shouldered by the navigators.

Brit-Eli Danielsen

Conference Proceedings

Exploring organizational safety vulnerabilities on naval ships – a comparative quantitative analysis

There are several recent examples of major accidents involving naval ships. The starting point for this article is the collision between the frigate ‘Helge Ingstad’ and the oil tanker ‘Sola TS’. An investigation highlighted systemic weaknesses in the Norwegian navy related to safety competence safety management, and handling of goal conflicts. By means of a cross-sectional survey involving crews on Norwegian vessels (N = 9,344), we explored if naval ships differed from other ships on such aspects. The results indicated that crew members on naval ships had less experience and less confidence in their colleagues’ competence to work safety. There were few differences related to considerations of safety management and safety practices. There are approaches available that could supplement accident investigations in systemic analyses of complex sociotechnical systems.

Trond Kongsvik, Asbjørn Lein Aalberg

Conference Proceedings

Mental Workload Assessment in Virtual Reality Environment Based Ship Navigating Operations

With the development of virtual reality technology and human-computer interaction technology, workload assessment in a virtual reality environment become a reality. Using virtual reality technology to design digital models to simulate products and verify related solutions can reduce costs, shorten the development cycle, and improve the quality of product design. The goal of this paper is to verify the effectiveness of workload assessment in a virtual reality environment. In this study, the ship console system is an example to conduct a comparative experiment in the virtual prototype and physical prototype. Workload assessment indicators include task performance (task completion rate, task completion time), eye tracking measures (gaze entropy, pupil change rate and fixation rate of AOI, etc.), and subjective scales (NASA_TLX). According to a ship console’s size, display interface, and environment, a digital model and the experimental environment were built in Unity engine. The data were collected to verify the consistency of the experimental results of the VR prototype and the physical prototype. There was no significant difference in task completion rate, NASA_TLX scores, fixation rate of AOI, pupil change rate, gaze entropy, and blink rate between the two prototype systems. The results show that the VR prototype can be used to replace the physical prototype for workload assessment to some extent.

Yu Zhang, Chongbin Li, Quan Ding, Jie Chen

Conference Proceedings

Assisted text messaging system for maritime emergency communications

Effective and clear communication transfers information, creates an experience in others and causes a reaction. In personal or professional relationships, effective communication is hindered by social and cultural inhomogeneities, and this is the main cause of misunderstandings.Misunderstandings in voice communication have also been identified as the main cause of accidents at sea; although English is used and recognized as an official language for maritime communications, an incorrect pronunciation or accent can cause misunderstanding or even change meaning. Therefore, it is extremely useful to adopt models, protocols and rules aimed at reducing misunderstandings as much as possible.During the years, IMO (International Maritime Organization) has developed the Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP), a set of well-defined sentences, written in a very simplified English, aimed at mitigating the aforementioned problem. Past studies have shown that SMCP is not commonly used and difficulties to pronounce and understand English spoken by different nationalities remains.This paper presents an innovative communication system, developed by the University of Genoa with the collaboration of the Italian Coast Guard in the context the Maritime Interreg project ISIDE, that exploits the possibility of sending text messages through the AIS devices that boats are equipped with.Commercial vessels with a gross tonnage equal to or greater than 300 tons and all passenger ships (regardless of their size) are in fact obliged to equip themselves with the Automatic Identification System (AIS), essentially based on digital VHF radios that can transmit, in an automated and continuous manner, information such as ship name, type of ship, position, course and speed over ground, navigation conditions and other safety-related information.A user-friendly interface has been developed to assist the operator in selecting the appropriate message among those provided by the SMCP standard or alternatively to compose a personalized text, both in the beginning of a new conversation and in the reply to a previously received message. The system can be integrated in professional consoles, standard web interfaces and apps and also on wearable devices such as smart watches. The system takes care of transmitting and receiving information AIS device as the communication channel.The user interface has also been implemented in several languages (i.e., English, Italian, French…) and the received/transmitted SMCP messages are automatically translated into the native language of the operator, thus eliminating language barriers and reducing misunderstandings.The system has been tested during several SAR exercise with the support of the Italian Coast Guard and the results are presented in the full paper.In order to extend the application also to smaller leisure boats, the system will be experimented in the near future using Marine VHF devices able to transmit text messages according the RTCM 12301.1 standard proposed by the Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services.

Carlo Andreotti, Pierpaolo Baglietto, Massimo Maresca, Stefano Strada

Conference Proceedings

Operator function model to analyze ship accidents related to navigation aids

A marine Aids of Navigation (AtoN) is a man-made object in waterways used by mariners to determine their ship's location or a safe route. They act like traffic signs on roads used to reduce the risk of traffic accidents. However, traffic signs can't do their job if you can't recognize them, don't understand their meaning, or violate them. In this study, ship accidents caused by the malfunction of navigation aids were investigated. First, maritime officers’ work in the ship bridge work was analyzed using the Operator Function Model (OFM), and among all the functions derived from the analysis, only the functions related to aids to navigation were selected. Using the selected functions as a classification system for ship accidents, recent ship accidents in the Korean coast were analyzed. The ship accident analysis was conducted using written verdicts of the Korean Maritime Safety Tribunal. Cases of ship accidents were confirmed in most of the selected functions. The results of this study can be used for safety education of maritime officers and the deployment, maintenance, and design of AtoN.

Seung-Kweon Hong

Conference Proceedings